Table 1.1 Some Important Events in the Development of Microbiology Other Historical Events 50-0 the heliocentric solar system (1543) ch and a1687 i attacks s u() 1847-1850 u(1849 1849 C) umer (1855) 188 ur shows that Edison's first light bulb (1879) Ives produces first color photograph(1881) 1386 7-1890 er Yersinia pestis.the cause of plagu Rontgen discovers X rays (1895) Buch (7)
Prescott−Harley−Klein: Microbiology, Fifth Edition I. Introduction to Microbiology 1. The History and Scope of Microbiology © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2002 1.2 The Conflict over Spontaneous Generation 3 Table 1.1 Some Important Events in the Development of Microbiology Date Microbiological History Other Historical Events 1546 Fracastoro suggests that invisible organisms cause disease Publication of Copernicus’s work on the heliocentric solar system (1543) 1590–1608 Jansen develops first useful compound microscope Shakespeare’s Hamlet (1600–1601) 1676 Leeuwenhoek discovers “animalcules” J. S. Bach and Handel born (1685) 1688 Redi publishes work on spontaneous generation of maggots Isaac Newton publishes the Principia (1687) Linnaeus’s Systema Naturae (1735) Mozart born (1756) 1765–1776 Spallanzani attacks spontaneous generation 1786 Müller produces first classification of bacteria French Revolution (1789) 1798 Jenner introduces cowpox vaccination for smallpox Beethoven’s first symphony (1800) The battle of Waterloo and the defeat of Napoleon (1815) Faraday demonstrates the principle of an electric motor (1821) 1838–1839 Schwann and Schleiden, the Cell Theory England issues first postage stamp (1840) 1835–1844 Bassi discovers that silkworm disease is caused by a fungus and proposes that many diseases are microbial in origin Marx’s Communist Manifesto (1848) 1847–1850 Semmelweis shows that childbed fever is transmitted by Velocity of light first measured by Fizeau (1849) physicians and introduces the use of antiseptics to prevent the disease Clausius states the first and second laws of thermodynamics (1850) 1849 Snow studies the epidemiology of a cholera epidemic Graham distinguishes between colloids and crystalloids in London Melville’s Moby Dick (1851) Otis installs first safe elevator (1854) Bunsen introduces the use of the gas burner (1855) 1857 Pasteur shows that lactic acid fermentation is due to a microorganism 1858 Virchow states that all cells come from cells Darwin’s On the Origin of Species (1859) 1861 Pasteur shows that microorganisms do not arise by American Civil War (1861–1865) spontaneous generation Mendel publishes his genetics experiments (1865) Cross-Atlantic cable laid (1865) 1867 Lister publishes his work on antiseptic surgery Dostoevski’s Crime and Punishment (1866) 1869 Miescher discovers nucleic acids Franco-German War (1870–1871) 1876–1877 Koch demonstrates that anthrax is caused by Bell invents telephone (1876) Bacillus anthracis Edison’s first light bulb (1879) 1880 Laveran discovers Plasmodium, the cause of malaria 1881 Koch cultures bacteria on gelatin Ives produces first color photograph (1881) Pasteur develops anthrax vaccine 1882 Koch discovers tubercle bacillus, Mycobacterium tuberculosis First central electric power station constructed by Edison (1882) 1884 Koch’s postulates first published Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884) Metchnikoff describes phagocytosis Autoclave developed Gram stain developed 1885 Pasteur develops rabies vaccine First motor vehicles developed by Daimler (1885–1886) Escherich discovers Escherichia coli, a cause of diarrhea 1886 Fraenkel discovers Streptococcus pneumoniae, a cause of pneumonia 1887 Petri dish (plate) developed by Richard Petri 1887–1890 Winogradsky studies sulfur and nitrifying bacteria Hertz discovers radio waves (1888) 1889 Beijerinck isolates root nodule bacteria Eastman makes box camera (1888) 1890 Von Behring prepares antitoxins for diphtheria and tetanus 1892 Ivanowsky provides evidence for virus causation of tobacco mosaic disease First zipper patented (1895) 1894 Kitasato and Yersin discover Yersinia pestis, the cause of plague 1895 Bordet discovers complement Röntgen discovers X rays (1895) 1896 Van Ermengem discovers Clostridium botulinum, the cause of botulism 1897 Buchner prepares extract of yeast that ferments Thomson discovers the electron (1897) Ross shows that malaria parasite is carried by the mosquito Spanish-American War (1898) 1899 Beijerinck proves that a virus particle causes the tobacco mosaic disease 1900 Reed proves that yellow fever is transmitted by the mosquito Planck develops the quantum theory (1900) 1902 Landsteiner discovers blood groups First electric typewriter (1901)
had Chapter 1 The History and Scope of Microbiology Table 11 Continued Date Microbialoeical History Other Historical Events 1903 1905 Einstein's special theory of relativity (1905 1915-1917 D'Herelle and Twort discover bacterial viruses niy (1 Lindbery's transatlantic flight (1927) ”ma 18 9 The DDT() Lederberg and Tatum describe bacterial conjugation 94 199 0) 1953 nliadtanstctioa DNA Jacob and (97) ill 1962 1967 1970 T义9u93 1975 ea as a distinet microbial group by
Prescott−Harley−Klein: Microbiology, Fifth Edition I. Introduction to Microbiology 1. The History and Scope of Microbiology © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2002 4 Chapter 1The History and Scope of Microbiology Table 1.1 Continued Date Microbiological History Other Historical Events 1903 Wright and others discover antibodies in the blood of First powered aircraft (1903) immunized animals 1905 Schaudinn and Hoffmann show Treponema pallidum Einstein’s special theory of relativity (1905) causes syphilis 1906 Wassermann develops complement fixation test for syphilis 1909 Ricketts shows that Rocky Mountain spotted fever is transmitted First model T Ford (1908) by ticks and caused by a microbe (Rickettsia rickettsii) Peary and Hensen reach North Pole (1909) 1910 Ehrlich develops chemotherapeutic agent for syphilis Rutherford presents his theory of the atom (1911) 1911 Rous discovers a virus that causes cancer in chickens Picasso and cubism (1912) World War I begins (1914) 1915–1917 D’Herelle and Twort discover bacterial viruses Einstein’s general theory of relativity (1916) Russian Revolution (1917) 1921 Fleming discovers lysozyme 1923 First edition of Bergey’s Manual Lindberg’s transatlantic flight (1927) 1928 Griffith discovers bacterial transformation 1929 Fleming discovers penicillin Stock market crash (1929) 1931 Van Niel shows that photosynthetic bacteria use reduced compounds as electron donors without producing oxygen 1933 Ruska develops first transmission electron microscope Hitler becomes chancellor of Germany (1933) 1935 Stanley crystallizes the tobacco mosaic virus Domagk discovers sulfa drugs 1937 Chatton divides living organisms into procaryotes Krebs discovers the citric acid cycle (1937) and eucaryotes World War II begins (1939) 1941 Beadle and Tatum, one-gene-one-enzyme hypothesis 1944 Avery shows that DNA carries information during The insecticide DDT introduced (1944) transformation Waksman discovers streptomycin Atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki (1945) 1946 Lederberg and Tatum describe bacterial conjugation United Nations formed (1945) First electronic computer (1946) 1949 Enders, Weller, and Robbins grow poliovirus in human tissue cultures 1950 Lwoff induces lysogenic bacteriophages Korean War begins (1950) 1952 Hershey and Chase show that bacteriophages inject DNA First hydrogen bomb exploded (1952) into host cells Stalin dies (1952) Zinder and Lederberg discover generalized transduction First commercial transistorized product (1952) 1953 Phase-contrast microscope developed U.S. Supreme Court rules against segregated schools (1954) Medawar discovers immune tolerance Watson and Crick propose the double helix structure for DNA 1955 Jacob and Wollman discover the F factor is a plasmid Montgomery bus boycott (1955) Jerne and Burnet propose the clonal selection theory Sputnik launched by Soviet Union (1957) 1959 Yalow develops the radioimmunoassay technique Birth control pill (1960) 1961 Jacob and Monod propose the operon model of gene regulation First humans in space (1961) 1961–1966 Nirenberg, Khorana, and others elucidate the genetic code Cuban missile crisis (1962) Nuclear test ban treaty (1963) 1962 Porter proposes the basic structure for immunoglobulin G Civil Rights March on Washington (1963) First quinolone antimicrobial (nalidixic acid) synthesized President Kennedy assassinated (1963) Arab-Israeli War (1967) Martin Luther King assassination (1968) Neil Armstrong walks on the moon (1969) 1970 Discovery of restriction endonucleases by Arber and Smith Discovery of reverse transcriptase in retroviruses by Temin and Baltimore 1973 Ames develops a bacterial assay for the detection of mutagens Salt I Treaty (1972) Cohen, Boyer, Chang, and Helling use plasmid vectors to clone Vietnam War ends (1973) genes in bacteria 1975 Kohler and Milstein develop technique for the production of President Nixon resigns because of Watergate cover-up (1974) monoclonal antibodies Lyme disease discovered 1977 Recognition of archaea as a distinct microbial group by Panama Canal Treaty (1977) Woese and Fox
eie。 8ea Table 1.1 Continued Date Microbiological History Other Historical Events AIDS Dpoer(199】 193 Water found on the moon (1998) a C:A 8 形：a c形：rS Figure 1.1 Antony van Leeuv (1-723)and his he ing pin.b
Prescott−Harley−Klein: Microbiology, Fifth Edition I. Introduction to Microbiology 1. The History and Scope of Microbiology © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2002 1.2 The Conflict over Spontaneous Generation 5 Table 1.1 Continued Date Microbiological History Other Historical Events Gilbert and Sanger develop techniques for DNA sequencing 1979 Insulin synthesized using recombinant DNA techniques Hostages seized in Iran (1978) Smallpox declared officially eliminated Three Mile Island disaster (1979) 1980 Development of the scanning tunneling microscope Home computers marketed (1980) 1982 Recombinant hepatitis B vaccine developed AIDS first recognized (1981) 1982–1983 Discovery of catalytic RNA by Cech and Altman First artificial heart implanted (1982) 1983–1984 The human immunodeficiency virus isolated and identified Meter redefined in terms of distance light travels (1983) by Gallo and Montagnier The polymerase chain reaction developed by Mullis 1986 First vaccine (hepatitis B vaccine) produced by genetic Gorbachev becomes Communist party general secretary (1985) engineering approved for human use Berlin Wall falls (1989) 1990 First human gene-therapy testing begun Persian Gulf War with Iraq begins (1990) Soviet Union collapse; Boris Yeltsin comes to power (1991) 1992 First human trials of antisense therapy 1995 Chickenpox vaccine approved for U.S. use Haemophilus influenzae genome sequenced 1996 Methanococcus jannaschii genome sequenced Water found on the moon (1998) Yeast genome sequenced 1997 Discovery of Thiomargarita namibiensis, the largest known bacterium Escherichia coli genome sequenced 2000 Discovery that Vibrio cholerae has two separate chromosomes Figure 1.1 Antony van Leeuwenhoek. Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) and his microscopes. (a) Leeuwenhoek holding a microscope. (b) A drawing of one of the microscopes showing the lens, a; mounting pin, b; and focusing screws, c and d. (c) Leeuwenhoek’s drawings of bacteria from the human mouth. (b) Source: C. E. Dobell, Antony van Leeuwenhoek and His Little Animals (1932), Russell and Russell, 1958. d d c c b b a a (a) (b) (c)
hd Chapter 1 The History and Scope of Microbiology Pastcur' es Naturelle. ed that ui Paseur.Pasleur ()oini is destroyed its ability to suppor life ots by dees faskofhetstcnizdmctnnatncrirhadpascdthoehtece Leeuwenboek's discover y of micro anisms renewed the not been heat uchet claim giohaecamedoutcpcninentsconc poiniedouthatboilcdcxtractsofhg or meat would give riset ments on spontaneous generation.Needham boiled muton broth cks in a flame 一e Pater pointed out that
Prescott−Harley−Klein: Microbiology, Fifth Edition I. Introduction to Microbiology 1. The History and Scope of Microbiology © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2002 Thus the generation of maggots by decaying meat resulted from the presence of fly eggs, and meat did not spontaneously generate maggots as previously believed. Similar experiments by others helped discredit the theory for larger organisms. Leeuwenhoek’s discovery of microorganisms renewed the controversy. Some proposed that microorganisms arose by spontaneous generation even though larger organisms did not. They pointed out that boiled extracts of hay or meat would give rise to microorganisms after sitting for a while. In 1748 the English priest John Needham (1713–1781) reported the results of his experiments on spontaneous generation. Needham boiled mutton broth and then tightly stoppered the flasks. Eventually many of the flasks became cloudy and contained microorganisms. He thought organic matter contained a vital force that could confer the properties of life on nonliving matter. A few years later the Italian priest and naturalist Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729–1799) improved on Needham’s experimental design by first sealing glass flasks that contained water and seeds. If the sealed flasks were placed in boiling water for 3/4 of an hour, no growth took place as long as the flasks remained sealed. He proposed that air carried germs to the culture medium, but also commented that the external air might be required for growth of animals already in the medium. The supporters of spontaneous generation maintained that heating the air in sealed flasks destroyed its ability to support life. Several investigators attempted to counter such arguments. Theodore Schwann (1810–1882) allowed air to enter a flask containing a sterile nutrient solution after the air had passed through a red-hot tube. The flask remained sterile. Subsequently Georg Friedrich Schroder and Theodor von Dusch allowed air to enter a flask of heat-sterilized medium after it had passed through sterile cotton wool. No growth occurred in the medium even though the air had not been heated. Despite these experiments the French naturalist Felix Pouchet claimed in 1859 to have carried out experiments conclusively proving that microbial growth could occur without air contamination. This claim provoked Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) to settle the matter once and for all. Pasteur (figure 1.2) first filtered air through cotton and found that objects resembling plant spores had been trapped. If a piece of the cotton was placed in sterile medium after air had been filtered through it, microbial growth appeared. Next he placed nutrient solutions in flasks, heated their necks in a flame, and drew them out into a variety of curves, while keeping the ends of the necks open to the atmosphere (figure 1.3). Pasteur then boiled the solutions for a few minutes and allowed them to cool. No growth took place even though the contents of the flasks were exposed to the air. Pasteur pointed out that no growth occurred because dust and germs had been trapped on the 6 Chapter 1The History and Scope of Microbiology Figure 1.2 Louis Pasteur. Pasteur (1822–1895) working in his laboratory. Figure 1.3 The Spontaneous Generation Experiment. Pasteur’s swan neck flasks used in his experiments on the spontaneous generation of microorganisms. Source: Annales Sciences Naturelle, 4th Series, Vol. 16, pp.1–98, Pasteur, L., 1861, “Mémoire sur les Corpuscules Organisés Qui Existent Dans L’Atmosphère: Examen de la Doctrine des Générations Spontanées
by (17 rms and that if du s abs nt,broth r e of ex d Cohn (1828-1 depend cxistence of heat-resistant bacterial endospores (see hapter). 2.How did Pasteur and Tyndall finally settle generation controversy? 1.3 The Role of Microorganisms in Disease me ection between microorganisms and ilnes 、he r ofmpd Indirect evidence that en of hu defended themselves a st micro organisms and to ask how dis- 1827-1912 om the work of t sed with Pasteur's studies on the involvement of micro ease might be prevented.The field of immunology was born. pres wounds. struments were heat sterilized,and phenol was used on Although Fracastoro and a few others had suggested that invisi- ong indi that nted wound infection the four humors The first direct demonstration of the roe of bacte olack bile [melancholylled to disease had bee 09 by his for Hen ulate in the ngs in 1876 (Box enth century.Agostino Bassi(173 856)first show omde e was due to a fungal infect ill.A transferring anthrax by inoculation through a series f20 due to m in b spores hen the is he study 1g0 or spore teur was ask were injected ate the isuping the silk industry. After several years of work en a mi sm and a specific dises ase was cor 1.The microo present in every case of the healthy moths
Prescott−Harley−Klein: Microbiology, Fifth Edition I. Introduction to Microbiology 1. The History and Scope of Microbiology © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2002 walls of the curved necks. If the necks were broken, growth commenced immediately. Pasteur had not only resolved the controversy by 1861 but also had shown how to keep solutions sterile. The English physicist John Tyndall (1820–1893) dealt a final blow to spontaneous generation in 1877 by demonstrating that dust did indeed carry germs and that if dust was absent, broth remained sterile even if directly exposed to air. During the course of his studies, Tyndall provided evidence for the existence of exceptionally heat-resistant forms of bacteria. Working independently, the German botanist Ferdinand Cohn (1828–1898) discovered the existence of heat-resistant bacterial endospores (see chapter 3). 1. Describe the field of microbiology in terms of the size of its subject material and the nature of its techniques. 2. How did Pasteur and Tyndall finally settle the spontaneous generation controversy? 1.3 The Role of Microorganisms in Disease The importance of microorganisms in disease was not immediately obvious to people, and it took many years for scientists to establish the connection between microorganisms and illness. Recognition of the role of microorganisms depended greatly upon the development of new techniques for their study. Once it became clear that disease could be caused by microbial infections, microbiologists began to examine the way in which hosts defended themselves against microorganisms and to ask how disease might be prevented. The field of immunology was born. Recognition of the Relationship between Microorganisms and Disease Although Fracastoro and a few others had suggested that invisible organisms produced disease, most believed that disease was due to causes such as supernatural forces, poisonous vapors called miasmas, and imbalances between the four humors thought to be present in the body. The idea that an imbalance between the four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile [choler], and black bile [melancholy]) led to disease had been widely accepted since the time of the Greek physician Galen (129–199). Support for the germ theory of disease began to accumulate in the early nineteenth century. Agostino Bassi (1773–1856) first showed a microorganism could cause disease when he demonstrated in 1835 that a silkworm disease was due to a fungal infection. He also suggested that many diseases were due to microbial infections. In 1845 M. J. Berkeley proved that the great Potato Blight of Ireland was caused by a fungus. Following his successes with the study of fermentation, Pasteur was asked by the French government to investigate the pébrine disease of silkworms that was disrupting the silk industry. After several years of work, he showed that the disease was due to a protozoan parasite. The disease was controlled by raising caterpillars from eggs produced by healthy moths. Indirect evidence that microorganisms were agents of human disease came from the work of the English surgeon Joseph Lister (1827–1912) on the prevention of wound infections. Lister impressed with Pasteur’s studies on the involvement of microorganisms in fermentation and putrefaction, developed a system of antiseptic surgery designed to prevent microorganisms from entering wounds. Instruments were heat sterilized, and phenol was used on surgical dressings and at times sprayed over the surgical area. The approach was remarkably successful and transformed surgery after Lister published his findings in 1867. It also provided strong indirect evidence for the role of microorganisms in disease because phenol, which killed bacteria, also prevented wound infections. The first direct demonstration of the role of bacteria in causing disease came from the study of anthrax (see chapter 39) by the German physician Robert Koch (1843–1910). Koch (figure 1.4) used the criteria proposed by his former teacher, Jacob Henle (1809–1885), to establish the relationship between Bacillus anthracis and anthrax, and published his findings in 1876 (Box 1.1 briefly discusses the scientific method). Koch injected healthy mice with material from diseased animals, and the mice became ill. After transferring anthrax by inoculation through a series of 20 mice, he incubated a piece of spleen containing the anthrax bacillus in beef serum. The bacilli grew, reproduced, and produced spores. When the isolated bacilli or spores were injected into mice, anthrax developed. His criteria for proving the causal relationship between a microorganism and a specific disease are known as Koch’s postulates and can be summarized as follows: 1. The microorganism must be present in every case of the disease but absent from healthy organisms. 1.3 The Role of Microorganisms in Disease 7 Figure 1.4 Robert Koch. Koch (1843–1910) examining a specimen in his laboratory