PART I THE SITUATION AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FOREST SECTOR the damage represented six months of Europe's normal harvest. The consequences of the storms were far-reaching. They had a substantial impact The impact of storms on the forests on many people's livelihoods and severely France affected forests. forest-based industries and current and future markets(see Production and consumption of forest products, p. 13) On 26 December and again on 27 and 28 December 1999 In most places, the response to the storms was rapid and effective. Many governments provided two hurricanes crossed france from west to east winds assistance to their forest and forest industries reached speeds of 150 to 200 km per hour, which are un- sector (see Box 2 for a description of the situation usually high velocities for Europe. Hurricanes of the same in- in France). National responses included reduced tensity had occurred in France over the last two decades fellings in undamaged forests; log storage in Brittany and Normandy in 1987, in the central mountain- programmes; subsidies and loans to sawmills to ous area in 1982 and in northeastern france in 1990-but hold increased inventories: the diversion of they had covered a much smaller area material into wood energy markets: funding The resulting damage to France's forests exceeded that of replant, reopen forest roads, take necessary any other storm in the last century. The equivalent of two phytosanitary measures and mobilize forest annual harvests was uprooted, felled or broken. Windfalls workers and equipment; and support to transpor amounted to more than one-third of the total growing stock services, inchuding the transportation of logs in some counties. A significant proportion of the 3 million mills in distant areas. Tax relief was also provided small-and medium-sized private forest owners, together with to forest owners. and subsidies and low-interest many communes that rely heavily on forest revenues, suffered loans were available for purchasing machinery major financial hardship. In mid-January, the Government of France launched the Plan national chablis(the National Storms are not unusual in Europe - windblows Windfall Plan) which, during the first year, concentrated on of over 20 million m have occurred about ter providing support-in the form of subsidies and soft loans, times since the early 1950s- but those of for example-for log harvesting, storage and transportation December 1999 were the most destructive there in order to remove as much of the wood as possible from had been for several decades. It is not possible to the forests. The aim was to facilitate forest regeneration and say whether storms are becoming more frequent to reduce the risks of fire, insect pests and diseases or more severe in the region, but a report By the end of 2000, about half of the windfallen trees had prepared for the French authorities (Y. Birot, been removed, mainly from the more accessible and valu- personal communication)suggests that several able stands. The wood was sold at prices not exceeding 80 factors have contributed to an increase over time percent of the usual value, and often much less. State sub- in storm damage to forests in France, including: sidies, amounting to some 90 million euros(USS77 million) increased forest area per year for the period 2000-2009, have been earmarked for higher standing volume per hectare ng private owners and communes to clear and regen- their forests the replacement of (relatively wind-stable coppice, and coppice with standards, by high stands with greater height; increased planting of conifers (Douglas fir and spruce, among others), which are more example, I recommendations have been developed susceptible to wind than broad-leaved species measures that would reduce their susceptibility in in winter, when winds are strongest in Europe. the future. The silvicultural changes called for in Following the storms, many countries france and other countries include increased examined ways to reduce the possibility of reliance on natural regeneration and the use of a severe storm damage in the future. In France, for greater variety of species, inchuding hardwoods
PART I THE SITUATION AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FOREST SECTOR 5 the damage represented six months of Europe’s normal harvest. The consequences of the storms were far-reaching. They had a substantial impact on many people’s livelihoods and severely affected forests, forest-based industries and current and future markets (see Production and consumption of forest products, p. 13). In most places, the response to the storms was rapid and effective. Many governments provided assistance to their forest and forest industries sector (see Box 2 for a description of the situation in France). National responses included reduced fellings in undamaged forests; log storage programmes; subsidies and loans to sawmills to hold increased inventories; the diversion of material into wood energy markets; funding to replant, reopen forest roads, take necessary phytosanitary measures and mobilize forest workers and equipment; and support to transport services, including the transportation of logs to mills in distant areas. Tax relief was also provided to forest owners, and subsidies and low-interest loans were available for purchasing machinery and hiring emergency workers. Storms are not unusual in Europe – windblows of over 20 million m3 have occurred about ten times since the early 1950s – but those of December 1999 were the most destructive there had been for several decades. It is not possible to say whether storms are becoming more frequent or more severe in the region, but a report prepared for the French authorities (Y. Birot, personal communication) suggests that several factors have contributed to an increase over time in storm damage to forests in France, including: • increased forest area; • higher standing volume per hectare; • the replacement of (relatively wind-stable) coppice, and coppice with standards, by high forest; • stands with greater height; • increased planting of conifers (Douglas fir and spruce, among others), which are more susceptible to wind than broad-leaved species in winter, when winds are strongest in Europe. Following the storms, many countries examined ways to reduce the possibility of severe storm damage in the future. In France, for On 26 December and again on 27 and 28 December 1999, two hurricanes crossed France from west to east. Winds reached speeds of 150 to 200 km per hour, which are unusually high velocities for Europe. Hurricanes of the same intensity had occurred in France over the last two decades – in Brittany and Normandy in 1987, in the central mountainous area in 1982 and in northeastern France in 1990 – but they had covered a much smaller area. The resulting damage to France’s forests exceeded that of any other storm in the last century. The equivalent of two annual harvests was uprooted, felled or broken. Windfalls amounted to more than one-third of the total growing stock in some counties. A significant proportion of the 3 million small- and medium-sized private forest owners, together with many communes that rely heavily on forest revenues, suffered major financial hardship. In mid-January, the Government of France launched the Plan national chablis (the National Windfall Plan) which, during the first year, concentrated on providing support – in the form of subsidies and soft loans, for example – for log harvesting, storage and transportation in order to remove as much of the wood as possible from the forests. The aim was to facilitate forest regeneration and to reduce the risks of fire, insect pests and diseases. By the end of 2000, about half of the windfallen trees had been removed, mainly from the more accessible and valuable stands. The wood was sold at prices not exceeding 80 percent of the usual value, and often much less. State subsidies, amounting to some 90 million euros (US$77 million) per year for the period 2000-2009, have been earmarked for assisting private owners and communes to clear and regenerate their forests. example, recommendations have been developed on forest establishment and management measures that would reduce their susceptibility in the future. The silvicultural changes called for in France and other countries include increased reliance on natural regeneration and the use of a greater variety of species, including hardwoods. BOX 2 The impact of storms on the forests in France
VoRLD's FoRESTS 2001 It is worth noting that these measures could well management in countries that produce and ave some long-term significance for the consume tropical timber. Increased attention is biological diversity of forests in parts of Europe. being paid to combating illegal activities in the forest sector and, for the first time the issue of MANAGEMENT CONSERVATION forest corruption is being addressed openly in AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT international fora (for a more detailed discussion, OF FOREST RESOURCES see Part IL, Illegal activities and corruption in the Efforts around the world are focused on achieving forest sector) sustainable forest management, an approach that he present discussion highlights two sub balances social, economic and environmental related to forest resources development objectives. This has resulted in changes in forest biotechnology and forest plantation establishment policy and legislation in many countries. On the and two subjects related to forest management ground, changes are occurring in management and conservation-the adoption of bjectives and practices and in the range of people environmentally sound timber harvesting practices involved in planning and managing forests ind restrictions on timber harvesting. In addition, Broader approaches to forest management, such as an issue related to the management and ecosystem and landscape management, are conservation of forest-based wildlife resources is becoming more widely accepted and put into discussed: that of unsustainable hunting of tice. These bushmeat, which is an increasingly serious dynamism of ecological and social systems, the problem in some parts of the world. To necessity of adaptive management, and the complement this section, a full discussion of ke importance of collaborative decision-making. issues is provided in Part Il, Forest biological Integrated strategies for forest conservation, in diversity conservation: protected area management which the conservation of forest resources in general and of biological diversity in particular Biotechnology in the forest sector includes management both inside and outside Biotechnology encompasses a wide range of protected forest areas, are increasingly being scientific techniques that use living organisms, developed ( see Part Il, Forest biological diversity their parts, to make or modify products conservation: protected area management Conventional plant biotechnology- plant breeding At the international level, efforts to encourage has been used for thousands of years for the sustainable forest management inchude the improvement of agricultural crops but its use for development of tools and mechanisms to breeding and improvement of forest trees is more encourage the adoption of better management recent. Biotechnologies are now commonly use practices. Certification of forest products is a for tree breeding and propagation and also for market-based mechanism, devised to encourage processing applications, such as pollution control sustainable forest management(see Forest and raw material breakdown products certification- recent developments, Modern plant biotechnology has recently p. 18); a number of other international efforts to become one of the most rapidly advancing fields support sustainable forest management are of scientific research on plants, offering potential described in Part Ill, Intermational dialogue and benefits-and risks-to forestry Modern initiatives related to forests. Criteria and indicators biotechnologies currently used in forestry fall into ive been developed as a way to measure three broad categories: biotechnologies based on progress towards achieving sustainable forest molecular markers; technologies that enhance management, and model and demonstration vegetative propagation; and genetic modification forests have been established to demonstrate of forest trees(see Box 3) sustainable management in practice. The Although many traditional aspects of International Tropical Timber Organization,'s Year biotechnology and its application are 2000 Objective promotes sustainable forest uncontroversial, genetically modified organisms
6 STATE OF THE WORLD’S FORESTS 2001 It is worth noting that these measures could well have some long-term significance for the biological diversity of forests in parts of Europe. MANAGEMENT, CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF FOREST RESOURCES Efforts around the world are focused on achieving sustainable forest management, an approach that balances social, economic and environmental objectives. This has resulted in changes in forest policy and legislation in many countries. On the ground, changes are occurring in management objectives and practices and in the range of people involved in planning and managing forests. Broader approaches to forest management, such as ecosystem and landscape management, are becoming more widely accepted and put into practice. These approaches recognize the dynamism of ecological and social systems, the necessity of adaptive management, and the importance of collaborative decision-making. Integrated strategies for forest conservation, in which the conservation of forest resources in general and of biological diversity in particular includes management both inside and outside protected forest areas, are increasingly being developed (see Part II, Forest biological diversity conservation: protected area management). At the international level, efforts to encourage sustainable forest management include the development of tools and mechanisms to encourage the adoption of better management practices. Certification of forest products is a market-based mechanism, devised to encourage sustainable forest management (see Forest products certification – recent developments, p. 18); a number of other international efforts to support sustainable forest management are described in Part III, International dialogue and initiatives related to forests. Criteria and indicators have been developed as a way to measure progress towards achieving sustainable forest management, and model and demonstration forests have been established to demonstrate sustainable management in practice. The International Tropical Timber Organization’s Year 2000 Objective promotes sustainable forest management in countries that produce and consume tropical timber. Increased attention is being paid to combating illegal activities in the forest sector and, for the first time, the issue of forest corruption is being addressed openly in international fora (for a more detailed discussion, see Part II, Illegal activities and corruption in the forest sector). The present discussion highlights two subjects related to forest resources development – biotechnology and forest plantation establishment – and two subjects related to forest management and conservation – the adoption of environmentally sound timber harvesting practices and restrictions on timber harvesting. In addition, an issue related to the management and conservation of forest-based wildlife resources is discussed: that of unsustainable hunting of bushmeat, which is an increasingly serious problem in some parts of the world. To complement this section, a full discussion of key issues is provided in Part II, Forest biological diversity conservation: protected area management. Biotechnology in the forest sector Biotechnology encompasses a wide range of scientific techniques that use living organisms, or their parts, to make or modify products. Conventional plant biotechnology – plant breeding – has been used for thousands of years for the improvement of agricultural crops but its use for breeding and improvement of forest trees is more recent. Biotechnologies are now commonly used for tree breeding and propagation and also for processing applications, such as pollution control and raw material breakdown. Modern plant biotechnology has recently become one of the most rapidly advancing fields of scientific research on plants, offering potential benefits – and risks – to forestry. Modern biotechnologies currently used in forestry fall into three broad categories: biotechnologies based on molecular markers; technologies that enhance vegetative propagation; and genetic modification of forest trees (see Box 3). Although many traditional aspects of biotechnology and its application are uncontroversial, genetically modified organisms
PART I THE SITUATION AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FOREST SECTOR (GMOs) have become the target of an intensive and, at times, emotionally charged debate. while this attention has mainly focused on the crop sector, the debate is now entering forest Modern biotechnologies and forestry Genetic modification of forest tree species using recombinant DNa techniques has been contemplated for addressing traits such as virus resistance, insect resistance, lignin content and Modem biotechnologies currently used in forestry fall into these traits into a new transgenic species ls o herbicide tolerance. Insertion of genes governing three broad categories Biotechnologies based on molecular markers which can substantial undertaking. The major limiting factor be used, inter alia, to: i) quantify genetic diversity among at present is the low level of knowledge regarding populations and individual trees; ii) identify genotypes in the molecular control of traits. This is particularly taxonomic studies, biological studies and "genetic finger- important for traits governed by an array of printing" and il) locate genes affecting quantitative traits genes, as is the case for the characteristic of economic importand interest for production forestry, for example Technologies that enhance vegetative propagation and growth rate, adaptability and stem and wood support large-scale production of uniform materials. Tissue quality culture of plants under laboratory conditions can also be There has been no reported commercial used to select traits such as disease resistance and toler production of transgenic forest trees, although 116 ance of herbicides, metals, salt and low temperatures field trials, in 17 countries and involving 24 tree Micropropagation is already used in crop and horticultural species, have been reported (Owusu, 1999). It is ecies, and techniques exist for its application in a num- acknowledged that biosafety aspects of genetically ber of forest tree species. High costs are currently an modified trees need careful consideration. impediment to the direct use of micropropagated material especially because of the long generation time of in forestry programmes trees and the potential for the dispersal of pollen Genetic modification of forest trees. The term genetically and seed over long distances. modified organism( GMO) generally refers to an organ- While the application of new biotechnologies in ism into which genetic material from other organisms has he forest sector offers interesting opportunities, been introduced especially for genetic conservation and increased production of wood and other forest products, a cautious case-by-case approach is necessary when integrating these new tools into long-term conservation in many locations. Elsewhere, wood conservation and breeding programmes. Many issues need to be evaluated more extensively. following discussion focuses on plantations for including their added value compared with that timber production. (See Part IL, The status of offered by existing conventional breeding methods: forests: the Global Forests Resources Assessment their cost; the level of capacity building and 2000. for information on the area of forest resources required to use and maintain them; their plantations worldwide in 2000. The role of forest potential impact on human health and the plantations in sustainable forest management has environment; existing regulatory and legal been the subject of considerable attention.One considerations at both the national and reason for this is that future increases in demand international levels; and consumers' preferences For example, at the International Experts Meeting on the Role Establishment of forest plantations of Planted Forests in Su management, held in Forest plantations can fulfil a number of functions. Santiago, Chile, 6-10 April 1999. Sponsored by the Plantations have been established for Governments of Chile. Denmark. India, New Zealand and Poland, this meeting provided input to the Intergovernmental environmental rehabilitation and for soil and water Forum on Forests(IFF
PART I THE SITUATION AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FOREST SECTOR 7 (GMOs) have become the target of an intensive and, at times, emotionally charged debate. While this attention has mainly focused on the crop sector, the debate is now entering forestry. Genetic modification of forest tree species using recombinant DNA techniques has been contemplated for addressing traits such as virus resistance, insect resistance, lignin content and herbicide tolerance. Insertion of genes governing these traits into a new transgenic species is a substantial undertaking. The major limiting factor at present is the low level of knowledge regarding the molecular control of traits. This is particularly important for traits governed by an array of genes, as is the case for the characteristics of most interest for production forestry, for example growth rate, adaptability and stem and wood quality. There has been no reported commercial production of transgenic forest trees, although 116 field trials, in 17 countries and involving 24 tree species, have been reported (Owusu, 1999). It is acknowledged that biosafety aspects of genetically modified trees need careful consideration, especially because of the long generation time of trees and the potential for the dispersal of pollen and seed over long distances. While the application of new biotechnologies in the forest sector offers interesting opportunities, especially for genetic conservation and increased production of wood and other forest products, a cautious case-by-case approach is necessary when integrating these new tools into long-term conservation and breeding programmes. Many issues need to be evaluated more extensively, including their added value compared with that offered by existing conventional breeding methods; their cost; the level of capacity building and resources required to use and maintain them; their potential impact on human health and the environment; existing regulatory and legal considerations at both the national and international levels; and consumers’ preferences. Establishment of forest plantations Forest plantations can fulfil a number of functions. Plantations have been established for environmental rehabilitation and for soil and water Modern biotechnologies currently used in forestry fall into three broad categories: •Biotechnologies based on molecular markers which can be used, inter alia, to: i) quantify genetic diversity among populations and individual trees; ii) identify genotypes in taxonomic studies, biological studies and “genetic fingerprinting”; and iii) locate genes affecting quantitative traits of economic importance. •Technologies that enhance vegetative propagation and support large-scale production of uniform materials. Tissue culture of plants under laboratory conditions can also be used to select traits such as disease resistance and tolerance of herbicides, metals, salt and low temperatures. Micropropagation is already used in crop and horticultural species, and techniques exist for its application in a number of forest tree species. High costs are currently an impediment to the direct use of micropropagated material in forestry programmes. •Genetic modification of forest trees. The term genetically modified organism (GMO) generally refers to an organism into which genetic material from other organisms has been introduced. BOX 3 Modern biotechnologies and forestry conservation in many locations. Elsewhere, wood production has been the overriding objective. The following discussion focuses on plantations for timber production. (See Part II, The status of forests: the Global Forests Resources Assessment 2000, for information on the area of forest plantations worldwide in 2000.) The role of forest plantations in sustainable forest management has been the subject of considerable attention.4 One reason for this is that future increases in demand 4 For example, at the International Experts Meeting on the Role of Planted Forests in Sustainable Forest Management, held in Santiago, Chile, 6-10 April 1999. Sponsored by the Governments of Chile, Denmark, India, New Zealand and Poland, this meeting provided input to the Intergovernmental Forum on Forests (IFF)
VoRLD's FoRESTS 2001 for wood are predicted to be met largely from the planned pulp and paper industry. In a few plantations. They are considered to be an efficient countries, plantations have superseded natural means to produce forest products on a relatively forests as a source of wood. In Chile, Indone limited land base, and they are therefore seen by Myanmar and South Africa, for example, many as helping to reduce deforestation and supplementing wood supplies from natural forests degradation of natural forests. However, if they has been a primary objective of plantation are poorly planned and managed and if existing establishment. In some Asian countries( China, land uses are not taken into consideration Japan and the republic of Korea)and a number of plantations can have negative environmental and European countries, plantation establishment has social impacts. This concern is reflected in the served primarily as a means of increasing or opposition to plantations that is voiced by some replenishing forest estates. New Zealand, the groups, particularly environmental non- Philippines and Thailand have withdrawn all,or governmental organizations(NGOs)and civil most, of their natural forests from timber society groups. production as a conservation strategy. Many of the The global trend is towards increased countries mentioned have substantial areas of establishment of plantations and reliance on them available land and thus have the potential for as a source of industrial wood (see box 4 ) In further plantation establishment. tropical countries, for example, plantations will be While plantations have a long history in some a particularly important source of raw material for countries, the development of a globally significant plantation estate is a relatively new phenomenon. This is illustrated by the global age- class distribution of industrial forest plantations in 95, as displayed in Figure 1. FAc plea rapid increase (Brown, in prep )suggest that some the global area of industrial plantations in 1995 comprised trees less than 15 years of age, with 21 percent planted between 1990 and 1995. The The Philippines, Mexico and China are three of several coun plantations that are older than 50 years are tries that have taken specific measures aimed at increasing located almost exclusively in temperate and In the 1930s, the Philippines had about 17 million ha of In most countries, rates of plantation forest. By 1994, however, the conversion of forests to establishment vary annually and are influenced by agriculture and other land uses had reduced the country's a range of factors, including government finances, forest area to 5. 7 million ha. In response, the government general economic conditions, incentives offered to banned logging in undisturbed and ecologically sensitive of the forests, and it recently introduced fiscal incentives for the profitability of forest activities and levels of establishment of forest plantations. The Master Plan for promotional activities. a notable feature of recent Forestry sets a target of 2.5 million ha of forest planta patterns of establishment has been the emergence tions to be established over the period 1990-2015. of Asia as the dominant region for new plantings In 1997, the Govemment of Mexico introduced a 25-year Asian plantations constituted 40 percent of global forest plantation programme, PRODEPLAN, which provides industrial plantations in 1995 and 57 percent of the economic incentives for the establishment of forest plant plantations established since 1985 ations in degraded and abandoned lands The development of forest plantations in some China plans to increase its forest cover to about 7 percent countries has already had a major impact on wood by 2010, mainly by establishing 9.7 million ha of forest production. In Chile and New Zealand, for example, plantations between 1996 and 2010 the establishment of extensive areas of plantations has enabled these countries to meet all their domestic wood needs and also to support a significant export
8 STATE OF THE WORLD’S FORESTS 2001 the planned pulp and paper industry. In a few countries, plantations have superseded natural forests as a source of wood. In Chile, Indonesia, Myanmar and South Africa, for example, supplementing wood supplies from natural forests has been a primary objective of plantation establishment. In some Asian countries (China, Japan and the Republic of Korea) and a number of European countries, plantation establishment has served primarily as a means of increasing or replenishing forest estates. New Zealand, the Philippines and Thailand have withdrawn all, or most, of their natural forests from timber production as a conservation strategy. Many of the countries mentioned have substantial areas of available land and thus have the potential for further plantation establishment. While plantations have a long history in some countries, the development of a globally significant plantation estate is a relatively new phenomenon. This is illustrated by the global ageclass distribution of industrial forest plantations in 1995, as displayed in Figure 1. FAO estimates (Brown, in prep.) suggest that some 54 percent of the global area of industrial plantations in 1995 comprised trees less than 15 years of age, with 21 percent planted between 1990 and 1995. The plantations that are older than 50 years are located almost exclusively in temperate and boreal regions. In most countries, rates of plantation establishment vary annually and are influenced by a range of factors, including government finances, general economic conditions, incentives offered to private sector interests, perceptions of the profitability of forest activities and levels of promotional activities. A notable feature of recent patterns of establishment has been the emergence of Asia as the dominant region for new plantings. Asian plantations constituted 40 percent of global industrial plantations in 1995 and 57 percent of the plantations established since 1985. The development of forest plantations in some countries has already had a major impact on wood production. In Chile and New Zealand, for example, the establishment of extensive areas of plantations has enabled these countries to meet all their domestic wood needs and also to support a significant export for wood are predicted to be met largely from plantations. They are considered to be an efficient means to produce forest products on a relatively limited land base, and they are therefore seen by many as helping to reduce deforestation and degradation of natural forests. However, if they are poorly planned and managed and if existing land uses are not taken into consideration, plantations can have negative environmental and social impacts. This concern is reflected in the opposition to plantations that is voiced by some groups, particularly environmental nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and civil society groups. The global trend is towards increased establishment of plantations and reliance on them as a source of industrial wood (see Box 4). In tropical countries, for example, plantations will be a particularly important source of raw material for The Philippines, Mexico and China are three of several countries that have taken specific measures aimed at increasing their national forest plantation areas. •In the 1930s, the Philippines had about 17 million ha of forest. By 1994, however, the conversion of forests to agriculture and other land uses had reduced the country’s forest area to 5.7 million ha. In response, the government banned logging in undisturbed and ecologically sensitive forests, and it recently introduced fiscal incentives for the establishment of forest plantations. The Master Plan for Forestry sets a target of 2.5 million ha of forest plantations to be established over the period 1990-2015. •In 1997, the Government of Mexico introduced a 25-year forest plantation programme, PRODEPLAN, which provides economic incentives for the establishment of forest plantations in degraded and abandoned lands. •China plans to increase its forest cover to about 7 percent by 2010, mainly by establishing 9.7 million ha of forest plantations between 1996 and 2010. BOX 4 Countries seeking a rapid increase in forest plantation area
PART I THE SITUATION AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FOREST SECTOR dustry with supplies from plantations. In most other countries where the domestic IGURE 1 demand is high, however, Industrial plantation age-class structure by region, 1995 plantation-grown timber supplies and must be supplemented by Plantation area(million ha) imported timber. While the private sector has CIS and Baltic states played a major role in plantation velopment in develop countries, most plantations in South America developing countries have been North and Central America established by the government. Oceania For various reasons, government Asia plantations have generally been Africa investment, low-intensity regimes. In some developing countries, however, the private sector (inchuding both individual landowners and industries. often 011-1516-2021-2526-30 50>50 in partnership) is becoming Age class byears) more involved in forest lantations. This development has been determined by a Source: FAO data in Brown(in prep. number of factors, includi changes in land tenure and more liberal policies and legislation. Brazil, India, developed codes of practice for forest harvesting Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand are some of the call for the use of environmentally sound timber countries where the private sector is playing a lead harvesting practices or RIL and substantial work role in plantation development. Financi has been done on testing and using RIL in the field. questions, including profitability and accessibility Although many countries have initiated of funds for investment, are of major importance. research, training and implementation of RIL, it Economic viability and risk issues are particularly has still not been widely accepted. The critical, both where large areas of plantations are environmental benefits of improved harvesting already controlled by the private sector and where methods over traditional methods are clear; RIL governments are offering to sell off their can reduce environmental damage associated with plantations under privatization schemes- as is the felling and skidding practices, extraordinarily large case in such diverse countries as Australia, Brazil, felling gaps or the excessive use of forest land for Chile, Indonesia, Malaysia, New Zealand and infrastructure. It can also reduce stand damage South africa. See the state ofthe World's Forests 1999 for more details. Environmentally sound forest harvesting practices Codes of practice for forest harvesting have been prepared for The emphasis on sustainable forest management has use at the global level (FAO, 1996) and at the regional level for resulted in greater attention to environmentally Asia and the Pacific(FAO, 1999a). Aregional code is being lanned for Africa, and national codes have been prepared for sound timber harvesting practices, often referred to Fiji(1990),Vanuatu(1997), Guyana(1998)and South Africa as reduced impact logging (RIL). Recently (1999): a code for China is currently in preparation
PART I THE SITUATION AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE FOREST SECTOR 9 developed codes of practice for forest harvesting6 call for the use of environmentally sound timber harvesting practices or RIL, and substantial work has been done on testing and using RIL in the field. Although many countries have initiated research, training and implementation of RIL, it has still not been widely accepted. The environmental benefits of improved harvesting methods over traditional methods are clear; RIL can reduce environmental damage associated with felling and skidding practices, extraordinarily large felling gaps or the excessive use of forest land for infrastructure. It can also reduce stand damage 5 See the State of the World’s Forests 1999 for more details. 6 Codes of practice for forest harvesting have been prepared for use at the global level (FAO, 1996) and at the regional level for Asia and the Pacific (FAO, 1999a). A regional code is being planned for Africa, and national codes have been prepared for Fiji (1990), Vanuatu (1997), Guyana (1998) and South Africa (1999); a code for China is currently in preparation. Source: FAO data in Brown (in prep.). industry with supplies from plantations. In most other countries where the domestic demand is high, however, plantation-grown timber supplies are inadequate to meet demand and must be supplemented by imported timber. While the private sector has played a major role in plantation development in developed countries, most plantations in developing countries have been established by the government. For various reasons, government plantations have generally been managed according to lowinvestment, low-intensity regimes. In some developing countries, however, the private sector (including both individual landowners and industries, often in partnership) is becoming more involved in forest plantations. This development has been determined by a number of factors, including changes in land tenure and more liberal policies and legislation. Brazil, India, Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand are some of the countries where the private sector is playing a lead role in plantation development. Financial questions, including profitability and accessibility of funds for investment, are of major importance. Economic viability and risk issues are particularly critical, both where large areas of plantations are already controlled by the private sector and where governments are offering to sell off their plantations under privatization schemes – as is the case in such diverse countries as Australia, Brazil, Chile, Indonesia, Malaysia, New Zealand and South Africa. Environmentally sound forest harvesting practices The emphasis on sustainable forest management has resulted in greater attention to environmentally sound timber harvesting practices, often referred to as reduced impact logging (RIL).5 Recently FIGURE 1 Industrial plantation age-class structure by region, 1995 0-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 >50 0 50 10 15 20 25 Africa Asia Oceania North and Central America South America Europe CIS and Baltic states Plantation area (million ha) Age class (years)