《社会心理学》课程教学资源（文献资料）conformity——Would People Still Obey Today？.pdf

Replicating Milgram Would People Still Obey Today? Jerry M. Burger Santa Clara University The author conducted a partial replication of Stanley Milgram’s (1963, 1965, 1974) obedience studies that allowed for useful comparisons with the original investigations while protecting the well-being of participants. Seventy adults participated in a replication of Milgram’s Experiment 5 up to the point at which they first heard the learner’s verbal protest (150 volts). Because 79% of Milgram’s participants who went past this point continued to the end of the shock generator’s range, reasonable estimates could be made about what the present participants would have done if allowed to continue. Obedience rates in the 2006 replication were only slightly lower than those Milgram found 45 years earlier. Contrary to expectation, participants who saw a confederate refuse the experimenter’s instructions obeyed as often as those who saw no model. Men and women did not differ in their rates of obedience, but there was some evidence that individual differences in empathic concern and desire for control affected participants’ responses. Keywords: obedience, authority, Milgram Stanley Milgram’s (1963, 1965, 1974) obedience studies are arguably the most well-known social psychological research inside or outside the field. References to the studies continue to appear in popular media, including movies and songs (Blass, 2004), and a social psychology textbook that does not include a discussion of the research is almost unthinkable. In truth, Milgram’s work is more properly described as a series of demonstrations rather than as an experiment (Burger, 2002), and the absence of a theoretical model at the outset of the research impeded Milgram’s efforts to publish the initial reports of his investigations (Blass, 2004). Nonetheless, the haunting images of participants administering electric shocks and the implications of the findings for understanding seemingly inexplicable events such as the Holocaust and Abu Ghraib have kept the research alive for more than four decades (Miller, 2004). Although Milgram developed many variations of his basic procedure, the study most psychologists are familiar with is Experiment 5 (Milgram, 1974). Briefly, a participant and a confederate were told the study concerned the effects of punishment on learning. Through a rigged drawing, the participant was assigned the role of teacher while the confederate was always the learner. The participant watched as the experimenter strapped the learner to a chair in an adjacent room and attached electrodes to the learner’s arm. The participant’s task was to administer a pairedassociate learning test to the learner through an intercom system. The learner indicated his responses by pressing buttons connected to answer lights on the participant’s side of the wall. Participants sat in front of an imposing shock generator and were instructed to administer an electric shock to the learner for each incorrect answer. Labels above the 30 switches that spanned the front of the machine indicated that the shocks ranged from 15 to 450 volts in 15-volt increments. Participants were instructed to start with the lowest switch and to move one step up the generator for each successive wrong answer. In actuality, the learner received no shocks. But he gave many wrong answers, which required the participant to administer shocks of increasingly stronger voltage. Following the administration of the 150-volt punishment, the participant heard the learner’s cries of protest through the wall. The learner said he wanted out, that he was experiencing excessive pain, and that his heart was bothering him. From that point until the 330-volt switch, the learner yelled in pain and demanded to be released after each shock. After the 300-volt shock, the learner refused to answer (which the experimenter said to treat as a wrong answer). After the 330-volt shock, the learner no longer screamed or protested when receiving a shock, suggesting that he was physically incapable of responding. The major dependent variable was the point in the procedure at which the participant refused to continue. The experimenter, who sat a few feet away, encouraged the participant to continue at each verbal or nonverbal sign of resistance. The study proceeded until the participant expressed resistance to each of four increasingly demanding prods by the experimenter or until the participant had pressed the highest switch on the shock generator three times. The unsettling finding was that 65% of the participants in this version of the experiThe research reported in this article was featured on ABC News’s January 3, 2007, broadcast of Primetime. I thank the following individuals for their assistance with data collection: Matthew Bell, Kenneth Courtney, Sarah Gibson, Brian Oliveira, Neda Raymond, and Tamara Trumbo. Thanks are also extended to the clinical psychologists who screened potential participants and to Thomas Blass, who supplied information about some of the materials used in the study. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Jerry M. Burger, Department of Psychology, Santa Clara University, Santa Clara, CA 95053-0001. E-mail: jburger@scu.edu January 2009 ● American Psychologist 1 © 2009 American Psychological Association 0003-066X/09/$12.00 Vol. 64, No. 1, 1–11 DOI: 10.1037/a0010932

ment continued to administer shocks all the way to the end of the generator’s range. Ethical Concerns In addition to their scientific value, the obedience studies generated a great deal of discussion because of the ethical questions they raised (Baumrind, 1964; Fischer, 1968; Kaufmann, 1967; Mixon, 1972). Critics argued that the short-term stress and potential long-term harm to participants could not be justified. In his defense, Milgram (1974) pointed to follow-up questionnaire data indicating that the vast majority of participants not only were glad they had participated in the study but said they had learned something important from their participation and believed that psychologists should conduct more studies of this type in the future. Nonetheless, current standards for the ethical treatment of participants clearly place Milgram’s studies out of bounds (Elms, 1995). No study using procedures similar to Milgram’s has been published in more than three decades (Blass, 2000). The 150-Volt Solution I always anticipate the reaction to one scene in particular when I show my undergraduate students the grainy black-and-white video from the Milgram studies. When the participant presses the 150-volt switch, the learner vehemently protests and demands to be released from the study. This is the critical moment in the procedure. Nearly every participant paused, and most turned to the experimenter to indicate verbally or nonverbally their reluctance to continue. For students seeing the film for the first time, it is the jaw-dropping moment. The man said he wanted out. How could anyone continue? Indeed, when Milgram asked psychiatrists, college students, and middle-class adults to predict their own behavior, the 150-volt point was by far the most common guess as to how far they would go (Milgram, 1974). The data make the same point. Of the 14 participants (out of 40) who stopped prior to reaching the 450-volt switch in this version of the experiment, 6 stopped after hearing the protests at 150 volts. One participant had stopped earlier. Only 7 participants who went past 150 volts stopped at all. Another way to say this is that 79% of the people who continued past 150 volts (26 of 33) went all the way to the end of the shock generator’s range. In short, the 150-volt switch is something of a point of no return. Nearly four out of five participants who followed the experimenter’s instructions at this point continued up the shock generator’s range all the way to 450 volts. This observation suggests a solution to the ethical concerns about replicating Milgram’s research. Knowing how people respond up to and including the 150-volt point in the procedure allows one to make a reasonable estimate of what they would do if allowed to continue to the end. Stopping the study within seconds after participants decide what to do at this juncture would also avoid exposing them to the intense stress Milgram’s participants often experienced in the subsequent parts of the procedure. Additional Safeguards In my replication of Milgram’s research, I took several additional steps to ensure the welfare of participants. First, I used a two-step screening process for potential participants to exclude any individual who might have a negative reaction to the experience. Second, participants were told at least three times (twice in writing) that they could withdraw from the study at any time and still receive their $50 for participation. Third, like Milgram, I had the experimenter administer a sample shock to the participants (with their consent) so they could see that the generator was real and could obtain some idea of what the shock felt like. However, a very mild 15-volt shock was administered rather than the 45-volt shock Milgram gave his participants. Fourth, I allowed virtually no time to elapse between ending the session and informing participants that the learner had received no shocks. Within a few seconds of the study’s end, the learner entered the room to reassure the participant that he was fine. Fifth, the experimenter who ran the study also was a clinical psychologist who was instructed to end the study immediately if he saw any signs of excessive stress. In short, I wanted to take every reasonable measure to ensure that the participants were treated in a humane and ethical manner. Of course, the procedures also were approved by the Santa Clara University institutional review board. Explaining the Effect Although ethical concerns have prevented psychologists from replicating Milgram’s procedures, discussion and debate about how to interpret the findings have never ended (Blass, 2004; Miller, Collins, & Brief, 1995). Nonetheless, most social psychologists appear to agree on one point. The obedience studies are a dramatic demonstration of how Jerry M. Burger 2 January 2009 ● American Psychologist

individuals typically underestimate the power of situational forces when explaining another person’s behavior. Prior to conducting his research, Milgram (1974) asked Yale students and 40 psychiatrists to predict the outcome of the studies and found nearly universal agreement that virtually no one would continue to the end of the shock generator’s range. It should be noted that subsequent investigations found that individuals provided with more details about the procedures still gave estimates of obedience lower than those in the actual findings but not as far off the mark as Milgram’s data suggested (Blass, 2000). What caused Milgram’s participants to act in such unexpected ways? Below I briefly describe four features of the situation that likely contributed to the high rates of obedience. Obedience to Authority Milgram (1974) maintained that the key to obedience had little to do with the authority figure’s manner or style. Rather, he argued that people follow an authority figure’s commands when that person’s authority is seen as legitimate. Moreover, our culture socializes individuals to obey certain authority figures, such as police officers, teachers, and parents. Milgram’s experimenter was granted the legitimacy of authority by virtue of his association with the experiment, the university, and perhaps even science. Subsequent discussions have raised questions about the nature of the experimenter’s authority. In particular, it seems likely that the perceived expertise of the experimenter contributed to the participants’ decision to follow the instructions (Morelli, 1983). The experimenter presumably had knowledge about the procedure and had gone through many previous sessions, and so participants deferred to his judgment. Milgram (1983) acknowledged this confounding of position and expertise in his studies but pointed out that this is often the case in real-life examples of obedience. Gradual Increase in Demands Another feature of the situation Milgram created that most likely contributed to the high rates of obedience was the incremental nature of the task (Gilbert, 1981). Participants always started with the lowest voltage switch, a relatively mild 15 volts with no noticeable effect on the learner, and proceeded in 15-volt increments up the shock generator’s range. We know from a great deal of subsequent research that this type of gradual increase in the size of demands is an effective tactic for changing attitudes and behavior (Cialdini & Goldstein, 2004). Among the psychological processes set in motion with this procedure are a need for consistency and a self-perception process. The well-demonstrated need to act and appear in a consistent manner would have made it difficult for a participant to refuse to press the 195-volt switch after just pressing the 180-volt switch. Moreover, agreeing to small requests, such as pressing the low-voltage switches, can change the way people think about themselves (Burger, 1999). Participants may have come to see themselves as the kind of persons who follow the experimenter’s instructions. Limited Sources of Information in a Novel Situation It is a fair assumption that Milgram’s participants had never before been in a situation like that in the obedience studies and that they had not given any thought to how they might or should act if they ever found themselves in this kind of setting. It can also be assumed that once participants realized the difficult position they had gotten themselves into, they began an immediate search for information about how they ought to respond. However, relevant information was quite limited. The primary source of information was the experimenter, who presumably knew all about the experiment and had gone through the procedure with many previous participants. Although he obviously heard the learner’s cries and complaints, the experimenter acted as if nothing was wrong and continually reassured the participant that the shocks were not dangerous and that continuing with the procedure was appropriate. In the absence of additional information, it was not unreasonable for participants to defer to the experimenter’s expertise, at least for a while. Data consistent with this analysis can be found in one variation of the basic procedure in which Milgram (1974) used two experimenters. When the learner first protested at the 150-volt level, one experimenter encouraged the participant to continue, but the other experimenter expressed concern and asked the participant to discontinue. In this situation, obedience virtually disappeared. Although Milgram’s participants typically had only the experimenter’s behavior to rely on, individuals making these kinds of decisions often have one other source of information—the behavior of other people. A wealth of studies demonstrates that people often rely on perceived norms when making decisions about their own behavior (Cialdini, Kallgren, & Reno, 1991). It is reasonable to speculate that obedience rates would have dropped considerably if Milgram’s participants had been informed before the study that the vast majority of previous participants refused to continue when they heard the learner’s protests. One of Milgram’s (1974) variations provides support for this interpretation. In Experiment 17, three “teachers” were used, one real participant and two confederates. Teacher 1 read the word pairs, Teacher 2 announced whether the answer was right, and Teacher 3 (the real participant) administered the shock. After hearing the learner’s protests following the 150-volt shock, Teacher 1 dramatically refused to participate and moved to the other side of the room. The test continued until Teacher 2 also refused to continue in a dramatic fashion at the 210-volt level. At this point, the experimenter told the real participant to continue the study by himself. Milgram found that 7.5% of the participants refused to go on as soon as Teacher 1 quit, 30% refused to continue immediately after the second teacher quit, and only 10% continued to the end of the study. Responsibility Not Assigned or Diffused Absence of responsibility has often been cited by psychologists as a contributing factor to aggressive and abhorrent January 2009 ● American Psychologist 3

behavior (Bandura, 1999). Indeed, when Milgram’s participants asked about responsibility, the experimenter specifically stated that he himself was responsible for any harm to the learner. Milgram (1974) reported that many of his participants placed responsibility for their own actions on the experimenter, taking a “just following orders” position in explaining why they continued the shocks. When Milgram arranged the situation so that a confederate delivered the shocks while participants performed “a subsidiary act” in carrying out the study (Experiment 18), only 3 of 40 participants refused to be a part of the study. The participants in this condition presumably attributed responsibility for hurting the learner to the person pressing the switches, which thereby allowed them to continue their roles as assistants. Hypotheses Would People Still Obey Today? A persistent question asked about Milgram’s research is whether his findings would be replicated today (Blass, 2000). Some people have argued that individuals these days are more aware of the dangers of blindly following authority than they were in the early 1960s. However, Blass (2004) found no evidence for a change in obedience over time when reviewing studies patterned on Milgram’s procedures. I predicted that any differences in obedience between the 1961–1962 participants (Milgram, 1963) and the 2006 participants would be minimal. Although changes in societal attitudes could have an impact on obedience, I argue that the question about changes over time may represent another example of the fundamental attribution error. That is, rather than acknowledging the power of the situational forces set in motion in Milgram’s procedure, those who suggest changes in obedience-proneness over time may be too focused on the individual. There is no reason to think that the situational features described earlier would not still be operating 45 years after Milgram’s investigations. Norm Information If participants in obedience studies seek out information about appropriate responses to their situation, then information about how others behave in the situation should influence their decisions about whether to continue. But how much norm information is sufficient to overcome the forces pushing participants toward obedience? Certainly if informed that 40 out of 40 participants to date had refused to press the switches, few if any participants would continue. But I was more interested in a situation in which some degree of ambiguity about appropriate behavior remained. I speculated that seeing just one other person refuse to shock the learner might provide useful information about what participants are supposed to do in this setting. Because participants are torn between doing what the experimenter tells them and not wanting to hurt the learner, I reasoned that they might eagerly rely on this limited norm information to conclude that refusing the experimenter’s instructions is appropriate. Researchers find that people often rely on single examples when drawing inferences, particularly when the example is salient (Gilovich & Savitsky, 2002). I also wanted to create a situation in which the modeled refusal was less dramatic than Milgram’s variation in which two confederates boldly announced their refusal and physically moved away from the shock generator. Moreover, I wanted to examine people’s reactions to the modeled refusal before they themselves engaged in the questionable behavior. Before witnessing the peer refusal, Milgram’s participants had already pressed the shock switches 14 times, including several times after hearing the learner’s demand to be released. As described earlier, these decisions to continue make it increasingly difficult for the participant to stop. Gender Differences Milgram relied almost exclusively on male participants in his obedience studies. The one exception was a replication of the basic procedure in which women were used as participants. The women complied fully with the experimenter’s commands 65% of the time, a rate identical to that in the comparable condition with men as participants. However, the obedient women reported higher levels of nervousness during the procedures than did the obedient men. Milgram (1974) speculated that the similarity between men’s and women’s behavior could be attributed to two opposing tendencies. On the one hand, women may have been more empathic toward the learner’s suffering, which would have led them to end the procedure. On the other hand, women may have had a more difficult time asserting themselves in the face of the pressure exerted by the experimenter. Although gender differences do surface on occasion in obedience research, Blass (2000) found no evidence of a gender difference in eight out of nine conceptual replications of Milgram’s studies he reviewed. Thus, although it seemed important to examine the effect of gender in this situation, I did not anticipate finding a gender difference. Personality Although the Milgram studies demonstrate the power of situational variables, it is also the case that some participants went along with the instructions whereas others did not. What can account for this difference? A case can be made that at least some of the variance in obedience can be explained by personality variables. Although few obedience studies have included personality measures, a handful of findings suggest personality may play a role (Blass, 1991). I identified two personality variables that seemed good candidates to affect obedience behavior. First, I looked at individual differences in dispositional empathy (Davis, 1994). Participants in Milgram’s studies were torn between wanting to follow the experimenter’s orders and not wanting to harm the learner. It is reasonable to argue that when empathy for the learner’s suffering is more powerful than the desire to obey the experimenter, participants are likely to refuse to continue. If that is the case, then individuals with a strong tendency to empathize with the suffering of others should be less likely to obey the experimenter’s commands than should those low on this personality trait. 4 January 2009 ● American Psychologist

Second, I examined individual differences in the extent to which participants were motivated to control events. Milgram’s research demonstrated that standing up to an authority figure is difficult. Moreover, whether participants accepted responsibility for their actions played an important role in their decisions to continue or to stop the experiment. I speculated that individuals who were motivated to exercise control and to make their own decisions would be more likely to disobey the experimenter than would those who were less motivated to feel in control. Although no study to date has examined the effect of desire for control on obedience, one set of studies found that participants with a high desire for control were less likely than those low in desire for control to conform to a perceived norm (Burger, 1987). Method Participants Individuals who responded to advertisements and flyers went through a series of screening procedures. As described below, these procedures resulted in a final sample of 29 men and 41 women. Participants’ ages ranged from 20 to 81 years, and the mean age was 42.9 years (SD 15.67, Mdn 41). Information about education and ethnicity are presented in Table 1. Procedure Recruitment and screening. Participants were recruited through advertisements in the local newspaper and in an online listing service. In addition, flyers were distributed at libraries, farmer’s markets, coffee shops, and community centers. The message in these ads and flyers was patterned after Milgram’s recruitment notices. Participants were promised $50 for two 45-min sessions. Interested individuals were instructed to provide their names and telephone numbers by either calling a phone number established for the study or sending the information to an e-mail address set up for the study. People responding to the ads or flyers were phoned by a research assistant, who conducted the initial screening procedure. Participants were first asked if they had been to college and, if so, if they had taken any psychology classes. The purpose of these questions was to screen out individuals who might be familiar with Milgram’s obedience research. People who had taken more than two psychology classes were excluded from the study. Individuals not excluded at that point were asked the following six questions: “Have you ever been diagnosed with a psychiatric disorder? Are you currently receiving psychotherapy? Are you currently taking any medications for emotional difficulties such as anxiety or depression? Do you have any medical conditions that might be affected by stress? Have you ever had any problems with alcohol or drug use? Have you ever experienced serious trauma, such as child abuse, domestic violence, or combat?” The questions were created by the two clinical psychologists who conducted the second screening procedure. As per the clinicians’ judgment, the research assistant excluded anyone who answered yes to any of the questions. Approximately 30% of the individuals who responded to the ads or flyers were excluded during the initial screening. Those who made it through the first screening were scheduled for a second screening session held on the Santa Clara University campus. Upon arrival, participants were given a series of scales to complete. These included, in order, a demographic sheet asking about age, occupation, education, and ethnicity; the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (Davis, 1983); the Beck Anxiety Inventory (Beck, Epstein, Brown, & Steer, 1988); the Desirability of Control Scale (Burger & Cooper, 1979); and the Beck Depression Inventory (Beck, 1972). The Interpersonal Reactivity Index is a 28-item selfreport inventory designed to measure dispositional empathy. The scale assesses four kinds of empathy, although I was primarily interested in the Empathic Concern subscale, which measures “the tendency to experience feelings of sympathy and compassion for unfortunate others” (Davis, 1994, p. 57). Research has produced evidence for the internal consistency, test–retest reliability, and validity of the scale (Davis, 1994). The Beck Anxiety Inventory is a 21-item self-report scale designed to measure severity of anxiety. Test takers indicate on 4-point scales the extent to which they have experienced each of 21 anxiety symptoms during the previous week. Studies have found evidence for good internal consistency and validity (Beck, Epstein, et al., 1988; Steer & Beck, 1997). The Desirability of Control Scale is a 20-item self-report inventory designed to measure the extent to which test takers are motivated to see themselves in control of the events in their lives. Researchers have found evidence for good internal consistency and test–retest reliability for the scale, and the scale has been used to predict a number of behaviors related to desire for control (Burger, 1992). The Beck Depression Inventory is a 21-item self-report measure designed to assess severity of depression. Test takers indicate on 4-point scales the extent to which they have experienced each of 21 depression symptoms in the previous week. Extensive use of the Table 1 Education and Ethnicity of Participants Education and ethnicity n % Education High school or less 12 17.1 Some college 16 22.9 Bachelor’s degree 28 40.0 Master’s degree 14 20.0 Ethnicity White Caucasian 38 54.3 Asian 13 18.6 Latin/Hispanic 9 12.9 Indian (Asian) 6 8.6 African American 3 4.3 Did not state 1 1.4 January 2009 ● American Psychologist 5