Psychological Science OnlineFirst,published on December 11.2013 as dol:10.1177/0956797613503854 Research Article PSYCHO Long-Term Relations Among The A (s)2013 Prosocial-Media Use,Empathy, com/ 0.1177/ 567y761550354 and Prosocial Behavior SAGE Sara Prot',Douglas A.Gentile',Craig A.Anderson',Kanae Suzuki2,Edward Swing',Kam Ming Lim',Yukiko Horiuchi Ma reta lelic Barhara krahe wei li qing er t K.Liau',A ngeline KhooPoesis D na Petrescu Akira Sakamoto,Sachi Tajima Roxana Andreea Toma" Wayne Warburton Xuemin Zhang,and Ben Chun Pan Lam of Psych Abstract Despite recent growth of research on the effects of prosocial media,processes underlying these effects are not unde Two studies explored the cally relevant mediator d moderators of the sof prosocia med helping my,and he by empathy and was similar across cultures.Study 2 explored longitudinal relations among prosocial-video-game use violent-video-game use,empathy,and helping in a large sample of Singaporean children and adolescents measured three times across 2 years. ath analyses showed significant longitudinal e ects of prosocial-and violent-video-game nge in empathy. -cultural differences,social behavior,prosocial media,violent media.prosocial behavior,empathy helping,general learning model,prediction Received/1/13:Revis ccepted 8/10/13 Recent vears have witn sed increasing interest in pos (Greite 2009)For example.Gentile et al tive effects of prosocial media (e.g.Greitemeyer,2011a (2009 found that adolescents'greater use of prosocial 2011b).A growing research literature has demonstrated video games was related to more frequent helping that pros can fo vision shows (Mares Woodard.2005)video games (Saleem,Anderson.Gentile,2012a),and music lyrics E-mail spro@iastate.cdu m17.2013
Psychological Science XX(X) 1–11 © The Author(s) 2013 Reprints and permissions: sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/0956797613503854 pss.sagepub.com Research Article Recent years have witnessed increasing interest in positive effects of prosocial media (e.g., Greitemeyer, 2011a, 2011b). A growing research literature has demonstrated that prosocial media can foster prosocial interactions. Significant effects of prosocial media on helping have been demonstrated for a variety of media, including television shows (Mares & Woodard, 2005), video games (Saleem, Anderson, & Gentile, 2012a), and music lyrics (Greitemeyer, 2009).1 For example, Gentile et al. (2009) found that adolescents’ greater use of prosocial video games was related to more frequent helping, 503854PSSXXX10.1177/0956797613503854Prot et al.Prosocial-Media Use, Empathy, and Prosocial Behavior research-article2013 Corresponding Author: Sara Prot, Department of Psychology, Iowa State University, W112 Lagomarcino Hall, Ames, IA 50011-3180 E-mail: sprot@iastate.edu Long-Term Relations Among Prosocial-Media Use, Empathy, and Prosocial Behavior Sara Prot1 , Douglas A. Gentile1 , Craig A. Anderson1 , Kanae Suzuki2 , Edward Swing1 , Kam Ming Lim3 , Yukiko Horiuchi4 , Margareta Jelic5 , Barbara Krahé6 , Wei Liuqing7 , Albert K. Liau3 , Angeline Khoo3 , Poesis Diana Petrescu8 , Akira Sakamoto4 , Sachi Tajima9 , Roxana Andreea Toma8 , Wayne Warburton10, Xuemin Zhang7 , and Ben Chun Pan Lam1 1 Department of Psychology, Iowa State University; 2 Faculty of Library, Information and Media Science, University of Tsukuba; 3 National Institute of Education, Singapore; 4 Department of Psychology, Ochanomizu University; 5 Department of Psychology, University of Zagreb; 6 Department of Psychology, University of Potsdam; 7 School of Psychology, Beijing Normal University; 8 Department of Psychology, West University of Timisoara; 9 Department of Psychology, Kantogakuen University; and 10Department of Psychology, Macquarie University Abstract Despite recent growth of research on the effects of prosocial media, processes underlying these effects are not well understood. Two studies explored theoretically relevant mediators and moderators of the effects of prosocial media on helping. Study 1 examined associations among prosocial- and violent-media use, empathy, and helping in samples from seven countries. Prosocial-media use was positively associated with helping. This effect was mediated by empathy and was similar across cultures. Study 2 explored longitudinal relations among prosocial-video-game use, violent-video-game use, empathy, and helping in a large sample of Singaporean children and adolescents measured three times across 2 years. Path analyses showed significant longitudinal effects of prosocial- and violent-video-game use on prosocial behavior through empathy. Latent-growth-curve modeling for the 2-year period revealed that change in video-game use significantly affected change in helping, and that this relationship was mediated by change in empathy. Keywords mass media, cross-cultural differences, social behavior, prosocial media, violent media, prosocial behavior, empathy, helping, general learning model, prediction Received 3/1/13; Revision accepted 8/10/13 Psychological Science OnlineFirst, published on December 11, 2013 as doi:10.1177/0956797613503854 Downloaded from pss.sagepub.com by Cai Xing on December 17, 2013
Prot et al. cooperation,and sharing,in cross-sectional.longitudinal are posited to affect behavior through long-term changes and experimental studies.Other studies have shown sig- in beliefs,attitudes,behavioral scripts,and affective traits. Detween watching prosocial tele Although effects of prosocial media have een dem (8 Experimental studies have demonstrated short-term sses underlying the effects of violent media (e.g causal effects of prosocial media.For example,Greitemeyer DaeEparpanoS eperiments.and come to the aid of a female experimenter effects of prosocial media on helping using diverse sam who was being harassed by an ex-boyfriend. s,manipulations,and measures (Barlett Anderson uggest that habitual use of pro 2009G of pre Br prosocial-video-game play predicted increases in pro no studies have examined long- erm mediators of proso cial behavior over a period of 3 to 4 months.D.R. cial media's effects on helping.Empirical evidence con Anderson et al.(2000) found that children who Blue's Ches tat age Togcther.corrclational.experimental and longitudinal nificantly moderate the effects of media violence ce studies in this area provide evidence that prosocial media C.A.Anderson et al..2003:C.A.Anderson,Gentile, have effects on prosocial behavior. Buckley.2007).the meta-analysis by C.A.An erson et al of e e an be understoo ture eral age ests that effects of Barlett Anderson,2013:Buckley Anderson. 2006 prosocial media may also be similar across cultures,but Gentile,Groves,&Gentile,in press;Maier&Gentile no comparable data are as yet available to test this The gener a metathe eoretic pre cted twe social medias social-cognitive theory (Bandura,1973,1983).script the- effects on helping.Study 1 examined relations among 1986. 1998) cognitive-neoassociation prosocial-media use,empathy,and helping in samples 9 eory (Comstoc seven countrie zed t greater pro ld Bushman 2007 and th helpi gde ned here as yolunta processing theory (Crick Dodge,1994).It provides a benefit another person)and that this effect would be at understanding how long-term least partially mediated by empathy (the tendency to be from ware of and emental and notional states o to the eral learning nd s fin from environmental interactions.including from the short-term contexts (e.g..Greitemeyer.2009:Greitemever media,and they do so through several learning mecha- et al.,2010),we focused on empathy as a potential key sms.Media conte ermines much of what s learne I-mec red g ong als nd d th social behavior because of changes in attitudes.belief tors.On the basis of the general learning model.w affect,and scripts.Prosocial media are expected to expected that the effects of prosocial media on empathy aggression and increa 【he and prosocial behavior would generalize across gender ht t cial an violent-media use.empathy.and helping in a longitudi ing positive affect(Saleem et al.,2012a;Saleem,Anderson, nal sample of 3.034 children and adoles ents measured Gentile,2012b).In long-term contexts,prosocial media three times over a period of 2 years.The longitudina
2 Prot et al. cooperation, and sharing, in cross-sectional, longitudinal, and experimental studies. Other studies have shown significant associations between watching prosocial television programs and performing prosocial acts in real life (e.g., Rosenkoetter, 1999; Sprafkin & Rubinstein, 1979). Experimental studies have demonstrated short-term causal effects of prosocial media. For example, Greitemeyer and Osswald (2010) showed that playing prosocial video games made participants more likely to help researchers pick up fallen pencils, agree to participate in further experiments, and come to the aid of a female experimenter who was being harassed by an ex-boyfriend. Longitudinal studies suggest that habitual use of prosocial media can cause long-term increases in prosocial behavior. Gentile et al. (2009) found that the amount of prosocial-video-game play predicted increases in prosocial behavior over a period of 3 to 4 months. D. R. Anderson et al. (2000) found that children who watched the television show Blue’s Clues showed significantly greater increases in prosocial behaviors than nonviewers. Together, correlational, experimental, and longitudinal studies in this area provide evidence that prosocial media have effects on prosocial behavior. These effects can be understood within the framework of the general learning model, an extension of the general aggression model (C. A. Anderson & Bushman, 2002; Barlett & Anderson, 2013; Buckley & Anderson, 2006; Gentile, Groves, & Gentile, in press; Maier & Gentile, 2012). The general learning model is a metatheoretical framework that integrates key ideas from several more specific models, including social learning theory and social-cognitive theory (Bandura, 1973, 1983), script theory (Huesmann, 1986, 1998), cognitive-neoassociation theory (Berkowitz, 1984), cultivation theory (Comstock & Scharrer, 2007), desensitization theory (Carnagey, Anderson, & Bushman, 2007), and social informationprocessing theory (Crick & Dodge, 1994). It provides a general framework for understanding how long-term beliefs, attitudes, and affective traits are developed from various life experiences. According to the general learning model, people learn from environmental interactions, including from the media, and they do so through several learning mechanisms. Media content determines much of what is learned. Violent media are likely to increase the probability of aggressive behavior and decrease the probability of prosocial behavior because of changes in attitudes, beliefs, affect, and scripts. Prosocial media are expected to decrease the likelihood of aggression and increase the likelihood of prosocial behavior. In short-term contexts, prosocial media are thought to affect behavior by priming prosocial cognitions (including scripts) and increasing positive affect (Saleem et al., 2012a; Saleem, Anderson, & Gentile, 2012b). In long-term contexts, prosocial media are posited to affect behavior through long-term changes in beliefs, attitudes, behavioral scripts, and affective traits. Although effects of prosocial media have been demonstrated, processes underlying these effects have been less extensively researched and are less understood than processes underlying the effects of violent media (e.g., C. A. Anderson et al., 2003). At present, there is empirical support for short-term predictions of the general learning model concerning prosocial media’s effects; several experimental studies have demonstrated short-term effects of prosocial media on helping using diverse samples, manipulations, and measures (Barlett & Anderson, 2013). These studies point to empathy as a key mediator of short-term effects of prosocial media (Greitemeyer, 2009; Greitemeyer, Osswald, & Brauer, 2010). However, no studies have examined long-term mediators of prosocial media’s effects on helping. Empirical evidence concerning potential moderators of these relationships is also lacking. Whereas some studies suggest that age, culture, and parental involvement in media habits may significantly moderate the effects of media violence (e.g., C. A. Anderson et al., 2003; C. A. Anderson, Gentile, & Buckley, 2007), the meta-analysis by C. A. Anderson et al. (2010) did not show significant effects of culture or age on the effect sizes for the effects of violent media on prosocial behavior. This evidence suggests that effects of prosocial media may also be similar across cultures, but no comparable data are as yet available to test this prediction. To address these gaps, we conducted two studies on potential mediators and moderators of prosocial media’s effects on helping. Study 1 examined relations among prosocial-media use, empathy, and helping in samples from seven countries. We hypothesized that greater prosocial-media use would be associated with more frequent helping (defined here as voluntary behavior intended to benefit another person) and that this effect would be at least partially mediated by empathy (the tendency to be aware of and react to the mental and emotional states of other people; Davis, 1983). Given past findings of prosocial media’s effects on empathy and prosocial behavior in short-term contexts (e.g., Greitemeyer, 2009; Greitemeyer et al., 2010), we focused on empathy as a potential key mediator of the effects of habitual prosocial-media use on prosocial behavior in the long term. Study 1 also explored gender, age, and culture as potential moderators. On the basis of the general learning model, we expected that the effects of prosocial media on empathy and prosocial behavior would generalize across gender, age, and culture. Study 2 examined relations among prosocial- and violent-media use, empathy, and helping in a longitudinal sample of 3,034 children and adolescents measured three times over a period of 2 years. The longitudinal Downloaded from pss.sagepub.com by Cai Xing on December 17, 2013
Prosocial-Media Use,Empatby,and Prosocial Bebavior 3 design allowed for stronger tests of our causal mediation Similarly,ratings on the two violent-content items were d that oducts liste h of the（up to)nine s over time. ideo s)had a fre content score.and a violentcontent score.such sefrat Study 1 ings of media content have been shown to correlate validities si expert ratings Method 13 ath ed b ct al an Particibants.This cross-sectional correlational studv the explored relations among prosocial-media use,empathy. perspective-taking subscales from Interpersonal and prosocial behavior across cultures Reactivity Index (IRI;Davis,1980,1983;14 items).The Samples wer even cou (2 stable pe onality cha ng many (200 participants).lapan (395 I would fee in nia (233 participants),and the United States (30 Items were rated on a scale from 1 (does mot describe me well)to 5(describes me very well).Empathy scores were nple of 2,202 adol scents and 0.09 .49%0 computed y averaging across the 14 items the Brie age of 21 years (D. e had )an cial Scale (adar ad fr e.c 1998:10 items).An example item is"I try to be helpful to Participants people even if I don't expect to see them ever again. either y aine Items were rated on a scale from 1(extremely uncbara racteristic of me).Score priateness to each Also as sed were gender,age,race,grade point country average.socioeconomic status.and parental education. Mec measured using of the Dill 2000. Particinants listed their three fvorite television shows Results three favorite movies,and three favorite video games Preliminary analyses.To calculate total prosocial separately for or played it ngor playing each favorite wateb/play 5 or more time and then summed these nine ducts.Violent-media Participants rated each of their listed television shows exposure was calculated similarly.Total screen time was compute ratings of how fre each conten (Ho quently th the on n74 as the These two item les that ran favorites.Dese ntive statistics for the seales in this stud from never to all the time.To capture the more active and are shown in Table 1.(See Section 1 of the Supplemental varied characteristics of video-game play we used two Material available online for correlations between the items to me cal conte game Ho main var grade poi average. How often do you he others in this Simila atly re ted to media habits or cial behavion two items were used to measure violent content in each these variables were excluded from further analyses.On game ("How en do characters try to physically injure the basis of geographical location and scores on the cul thi How o you try to dua m(H from 。nations into thre cultural For each vid game listed by the participant,ratings on the two prosocial-content items were averaged to creat States),collectivistic East European countries (Croatia a prosocial-con score font scor to the a),anc collectivistic East Asian countrie each a and Japan 17.203
Prosocial-Media Use, Empathy, and Prosocial Behavior 3 design allowed for stronger tests of our causal mediation model. We hypothesized that prosocial-media use would predict increases in trait empathy and prosocial behavior over time. Study 1 Method Participants. This cross-sectional correlational study explored relations among prosocial-media use, empathy, and prosocial behavior across cultures. Samples were obtained in seven countries: Australia (426 participants), China (203 participants), Croatia (438 participants), Germany (200 participants), Japan (395 participants), Romania (233 participants), and the United States (307 participants). The total sample of 2,202 adolescents and young adults was 40.0% male and 59.6% female (0.4% of participants did not report their gender) and had a mean age of 21 years (SD = 5.6). Measures. Participants responded to a questionnaire either online or in face-to-face interviews by trained research assistants. The choice of an online or in-person questionnaire was based on appropriateness to each country. Media use was measured using a version of the General Media Habits Questionnaire (C. A. Anderson & Dill, 2000; Gentile, Lynch, Linder, & Walsh, 2004). Participants listed their three favorite television shows, three favorite movies, and three favorite video games. They rated each show, movie, and game separately for how frequently they watched or played it (nine items; 5-point scale from watch/play once a month or less to watch/play 5 or more times a week). Participants rated each of their listed television shows and movies for prosocial content (“How often do characters help each other?”) and for violent content (“How often do characters try to physically injure each other?”). These two items were rated on 7-point scales that ranged from never to all the time. To capture the more active and varied characteristics of video-game play, we used two items to measure prosocial content in each game (“How often do characters help each other in this game?” and “How often do you help others in this game?”). Similarly, two items were used to measure violent content in each game (“How often do characters try to physically injure each other in this game?” and “How often do you try to physically injure players in this game?”). Again, 7-point scales ranging from never to all the time were used. For each video game listed by the participant, ratings on the two prosocial-content items were averaged to create a prosocial-content score comparable to the prosocialcontent score for each television show and movie. Similarly, ratings on the two violent-content items were averaged. Thus, each of the (up to) nine screen entertainment products listed (three TV shows, three movies, three video games) had a frequency score, a prosocialcontent score, and a violent-content score. Such self-ratings of media content have been shown to correlate highly with and yield validities similar to expert ratings (Gentile et al., 2009; Busching et al., 2013). Empathy was measured by the empathic-concern and perspective-taking subscales from the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI; Davis, 1980, 1983; 14 items). The IRI measures empathy as a stable personality characteristic. An example item is “Before criticizing somebody, I try to imagine how I would feel if I were in their place.” Items were rated on a scale from 1 (does not describe me well) to 5 (describes me very well). Empathy scores were computed by averaging across the 14 items. Prosocial behavior was measured using the Brief Prosocial Scale (adapted from P. C. Cheung, Ma, & Shek, 1998; 10 items). An example item is “I try to be helpful to people even if I don’t expect to see them ever again.” Items were rated on a scale from 1 (extremely uncharacteristic of me) to 7 (extremely characteristic of me). Scores were averaged across the 10 items. Also assessed were gender, age, race, grade point average, socioeconomic status, and parental education. Results Preliminary analyses. To calculate total prosocialmedia exposure, we multiplied the frequency of watching or playing each favorite television show, movie, and video game by its corresponding prosocial-content rating and then summed these nine products. Violent-media exposure was calculated similarly. Total screen time was computed by summing participants’ ratings of how frequently they watched and played the television shows, movies, and video games that they had listed as their favorites. Descriptive statistics for the scales in this study are shown in Table 1. (See Section 1 of the Supplemental Material available online for correlations between the main variables.) Race, grade point average, socioeconomic status, and parental education were not significantly related to media habits or prosocial behaviors, so these variables were excluded from further analyses. On the basis of geographical location and scores on the cultural dimension of individualism-collectivism (Hofstede, 1980; Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010), we divided the nations into three cultural groups: individualistic Western countries (Australia, Germany, and the United States), collectivistic East European countries (Croatia and Romania), and collectivistic East Asian countries (China and Japan). Downloaded from pss.sagepub.com by Cai Xing on December 17, 2013
Prot et al. Table 1.Mean Scores and Reliabilities for the Main Scales of Interest in Study 1 Country means Variable Mean a Australia China Croatia Germany lapan Romania Prosocial-media use 9 916 612 65 Violent-media use .74 82.00 55.02 520 38.13 58 43.8 70 Total screen time 9 78 (160 (10.26 7.47) 597 6.67 746 Empathy 14 .76 46 Prosocial behavior 10 8 5.17 5.09 (0.73) are given in parenthese Multigroup confirmatory factor analyses were con- differed among the cultural groups.Nonetheless,the indi- ducted with Mplus 6.1 (Muthen&Muthen,2010)to test rect effects of prosocial-media use on prosocial behavio through empathy were all thre group 0.21 for East E ect Because of the large sample size,differences in the East Asian countries.all).These results sugges comparative-fit index(CFD),rather than nested chi-square considerable cross-cultural generalization of the links 【est invan among prosocial-media use,empathy,and prosocial nce (in a 01 rondler as a tial moderator ment model of empathy and prosocial behavior across cultures and without parameter constraints showed ade- men and women within each cultural group.As in the 121.74,p <.01;Tucker-Lewis prosocial-media use was entered as a ion (RMSEA ng.viole y as a mediator,an (CD 1.05.081.The results of cross cally controlled Good model fit was obtained for constrained models (see Section 2 of the Supplemental an unrestricted multigroup model -Western sample Material)established metri ic equivalence for the measure (60) 146.06, P .01:Tu=96CF1= RMSEA =.0 the cultur. 90%CG1 factor loadings of empathy and prosocial behavior were t Asian sample:(60)=98.04.p 01.TmI=0 constrained to be equal across the groups. CFI=96;RMSEA =.05,90%CI=103,06].Constraining path coefficients from prosocial-media use to empath A ed to pro be equa t in time violent media ag Thus.prosocial-media effects were similar for men and 13.p<.01:T1I=.96CF1=98:RMSEA= women hi group,greater d r next m del,we amine as a m ior this as was fully mediated by Constraining the indirect effects of prosocial-media us effects on empathy or helping were found (all ps>05). on prosocial behavior through empathy to be equal nuy po Discussion ces h s (ACEI 01 for all thre Study 1 vielded similar paths fror ocial-media use paired comparisons).Thus,the effects of prosocial media to prosocial behavior via empathy across the seven
4 Prot et al. Multigroup confirmatory factor analyses were conducted with Mplus 6.1 (Muthén & Muthén, 2010) to test the measurement equivalence of empathy and prosocial behavior across cultural groups. Missing data were treated using full-information maximum likelihood estimation. Because of the large sample size, differences in the comparative-fit index (CFI), rather than nested chi-square tests, were used to test invariance (G. W. Cheung & Rensvold, 2002). A difference (in absolute value) between two CFIs of less than .01 suggests invariance. A measurement model of empathy and prosocial behavior across cultures and without parameter constraints showed adequate model fit, χ2 (32) = 121.74, p < .01; Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) = .98; CFI = .98; root-mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA) = .06, 90% confidence interval (CI) = [.05, .08]. The results of cross-group equalityconstrained models (see Section 2 of the Supplemental Material) established metric equivalence for the measures of empathy and prosocial behavior across the cultural groups. Therefore, in the main analyses, the forms and factor loadings of empathy and prosocial behavior were constrained to be equal across the groups. Main results. A structural model of media use, empathy, and prosocial behavior was examined (Fig. 1). Total screen time, violent-media use, gender, and age were statistically controlled. This model had good fit, χ2 (52) = 187.13, p < .01; TLI = .96; CFI = .98; RMSEA = .05, 90% CI = [.04, .06]. Within each group, greater prosocialmedia use was linked to higher levels of prosocial behavior; this association was fully mediated by empathy. Constraining the indirect effects of prosocial-media use on prosocial behavior through empathy to be equal across groups resulted in a significantly poorer model fit (ΔCFI = .03). Paired comparisons showed significant differences between all three groups (ΔCFI > .01 for all three paired comparisons). Thus, the effects of prosocial media differed among the cultural groups. Nonetheless, the indirect effects of prosocial-media use on prosocial behavior through empathy were of similar magnitudes in all three groups (standardized indirect effect = 0.38 for Western countries, 0.21 for East European countries, and 0.28 for East Asian countries, all ps < .01). These results suggest considerable cross-cultural generalization of the links among prosocial-media use, empathy, and prosocial behavior. To examine gender as a potential moderator, we ran three series of multigroup models comparing results for men and women within each cultural group. As in the previous model, prosocial-media use was entered as a predictor of helping, with empathy as a mediator, and with total screen time, violent-media use, and age statistically controlled. Good model fit was obtained for an unrestricted multigroup model—Western sample: χ2 (60) = 146.06, p < .01; TLI = .96; CFI = .97; RMSEA = .06, 90% CI = [.04, .08]; East European sample: χ2 (60) = 107.58, p < .01; TLI = .96; CFI = .97; RMSEA = .05, 90% CI = [.03, .06]; East Asian sample: χ2 (60) = 98.04, p < .01; TLI = .95; CFI = .96; RMSEA = .05, 90% CI = [.03, .06]. Constraining path coefficients from prosocial-media use to empathy and from empathy to prosocial behavior to be equal across genders did not result in a significant reduction in model fit, ΔCFI = .00 for each of the three cultural groups. Thus, prosocial-media effects were similar for men and women. In our next model, we examined age as a moderator by adding Age × Prosocial-Media Use and Age × ViolentMedia Use interaction terms. No significant interactive effects on empathy or helping were found (all ps > .05). Discussion Study 1 yielded similar paths from prosocial-media use to prosocial behavior via empathy across the seven Table 1. Mean Scores and Reliabilities for the Main Scales of Interest in Study 1 Country means Variable Number of items Mean α Australia China Croatia Germany Japan Romania United States Prosocial-media use 9 .82 110.02 (38.59) 91.07 (42.36) 62.27 (32.64) 61.29 (29.35) 93.94 (41.57) 66.57 (28.55) 74.28 (26.11) Violent-media use 9 .74 82.00 (41.60) 55.02 (36.00) 52.07 (32.2) 38.13 (24.37) 58.80 (31.70) 43.84 (28.13) 70.40 (44.55) Total screen time 9 .78 21.60 (10.26) 18.56 (7.35) 15.17 (7.47) 13.32 (5.97) 20.93 (7.22) 16.74 (6.67) 22.01 (7.46) Empathy 14 .76 4.64 (0.76) 3.69 (0.55) 3.41 (0.48) 3.77 (0.46) 3.46 (0.43) 3.42 (0.59) 3.63 (0.58) Prosocial behavior 10 .78 5.17 (0.88) 5.09 (0.73) 4.89 (0.89) 5.33 (0.70) 4.92 (0.87) 4.88 (0.97) 5.01 (0.80) Note: Standard deviations are given in parentheses. Downloaded from pss.sagepub.com by Cai Xing on December 17, 2013
Prosocial-Media Use,Empatby,and Prosocial Bebavior Western Countries Empathy Prosocial- 0.79 0.48 Media Use.10 Violent-Media -0.16 Use Total Screer 0.13 Time Age 15 Gender East European Countries 人Empathy 033 063 Media Use 0.00 Violent-Media 0.38 Use 009 Total Screer 0.11 Time 0.07 /0.18 Age Gender East Asian Countries 人Empathy) 0.40 0.71 Media Use 0.06 Prosocial Behavior Violent-Media 0.29 Use Total Scree Time 0.05 0.03 Age Gender cia he W and fast asian ns efficients are sbow lines represent ons
Prosocial-Media Use, Empathy, and Prosocial Behavior 5 Total Screen Time –0.16** Age ProsocialMedia Use 0.10 0.79** 0.48** Gender Violent-Media Use Total Screen Time 0.13** 0.15** Empathy Prosocial Behavior Western Countries East European Countries –0.03 Age ProsocialMedia Use 0.33** 0.63** Gender Violent-Media Use 0.11** 0.18** Prosocial Behavior Empathy East Asian Countries –0.01 Age ProsocialMedia Use 0.40** 0.71** Gender Violent-Media Use Total Screen Time 0.05 0.03 Prosocial Behavior Empathy –0.46** 0.15** 0.07 –0.38** 0.11* –0.29** –0.06 0.00 a b c Fig. 1. Results from Study 1: multigroup structural equation model of the effects of prosocialmedia use on prosocial behavior, as mediated by empathy. Results are shown separately for the Western, East European, and East Asian cultural groups. Standardized coefficients are shown (*p < .05, **p < .01). Solid lines represent significant effects, and dashed lines represent nonsignificant effects. Downloaded from pss.sagepub.com by Cai Xing on December 17, 2013