《设计基础》课程教学资源（电子图书）Edinburgh School of Art Understanding Architecture Through Drawing（Second Edition）.pdf_P16-P20

the sketch rather than the instantly obtained photograph TYPES OF DRAWING is the means to this awareness. To the architect and urban designer there are three main It is said that in our modern world we now produce types of freehand drawing.The first is the elaborate more photographs than bricks.For the first time in history perspective drawing used to communicate design ideas the visual image has become more prevalent than the to clients or planning authorities.Increasingly this type of means of making houses.The lesson concerns the drawing is produced by computer.The second type importance of design and appearance in contemporary concerns the production of sketch perspectives and society.But photographs are not always the most views used to communicate design ideas to specialists appropriate medium for expressing this visual concern.such as engineers,and sometimes to help clarify points There are times,and subjects,which lend themselves to for the designer's own benefit.This type of drawing can graphic analysis,rather than pictorial description.This be split into: book has the aim of reviving the sketchbook tradition,in order to create a visually literate society.The objective of.the investigation of an early design; education is to achieve not just literacy and numeracy,but.exploring methods of construction; graphic,visual and spatial skills.Our success as an.testing the visual effect of details; industrial society requires this;and so do we,whether as.setting the design in its physical context. designers or as individuals. If this book encourages people professional The third type of freehand drawing concerns the designers or otherwise -to explore the environment exploration of the existing world,its buildings,details and round about them with sketchbook and pencil(as against landscapes.The use of drawing in this regard does not camera)in hand,then a useful beginning would have just provide a repertoire of forms and designs to use in been made.There are always subjects to learn from,developing new structures,but helps cultivate a whether we choose to live in city,suburb or countryside.sensitivity towards the existing context in which This book takes themes based upon everyday experience,architects,planners and landscape architects are and seeks to draw design lessons from them.Once we increasingly required to work. have learnt the language of drawing and graphic analysis, Of these three broad categories of drawing,this book we are then in a position to engage in the complex focuses upon the latter.With a growing awareness of the business of design.For the first time in history design cultural and aesthetic values of cities,and with the involves us all and has permeated through to every aspect European Community requiring ever-higher standards of of our lives.If we ignore the language of design,we will urban design,those in the environmental professions face be as disadvantaged as those who finish school without new challenges. the basic skills of literacy and numeracy.No single book The general public,too,are better informed and can teach us how to learn through drawing,but it can through local amenity societies and bodies like the point us in the right direction and open our eyes to the National Trust make their views known on an benefit of good design. unprecedented scale.The widening of education to embrace design and technology (under the national curriculum reforms of 1990)promises to focus yet more The benefits of drawing 9

the sketch rather than the instantly obtained photograph is the means to this awareness. It is said that in our modern world we now produce more photographs than bricks. For the first time in history the visual image has become more prevalent than the means of making houses. The lesson concerns the importance of design and appearance in contemporary society. But photographs are not always the most appropriate medium for expressing this visual concern. There are times, and subjects, which lend themselves to graphic analysis, rather than pictorial description. This book has the aim of reviving the sketchbook tradition, in order to create a visually literate society. The objective of education is to achieve not just literacy and numeracy, but graphic, visual and spatial skills. Our success as an industrial society requires this; and so do we, whether as designers or as individuals. If this book encourages people – professional designers or otherwise – to explore the environment round about them with sketchbook and pencil (as against camera) in hand, then a useful beginning would have been made. There are always subjects to learn from, whether we choose to live in city, suburb or countryside. This book takes themes based upon everyday experience, and seeks to draw design lessons from them. Once we have learnt the language of drawing and graphic analysis, we are then in a position to engage in the complex business of design. For the first time in history design involves us all and has permeated through to every aspect of our lives. If we ignore the language of design, we will be as disadvantaged as those who finish school without the basic skills of literacy and numeracy. No single book can teach us how to learn through drawing, but it can point us in the right direction and open our eyes to the benefit of good design. TYPES OF DRAWING To the architect and urban designer there are three main types of freehand drawing. The first is the elaborate perspective drawing used to communicate design ideas to clients or planning authorities. Increasingly this type of drawing is produced by computer. The second type concerns the production of sketch perspectives and views used to communicate design ideas to specialists such as engineers, and sometimes to help clarify points for the designer’s own benefit. This type of drawing can be split into: • the investigation of an early design; • exploring methods of construction; • testing the visual effect of details; • setting the design in its physical context. The third type of freehand drawing concerns the exploration of the existing world, its buildings, details and landscapes. The use of drawing in this regard does not just provide a repertoire of forms and designs to use in developing new structures, but helps cultivate a sensitivity towards the existing context in which architects, planners and landscape architects are increasingly required to work. Of these three broad categories of drawing, this book focuses upon the latter. With a growing awareness of the cultural and aesthetic values of cities, and with the European Community requiring ever-higher standards of urban design, those in the environmental professions face new challenges. The general public, too, are better informed and through local amenity societies and bodies like the National Trust make their views known on an unprecedented scale. The widening of education to embrace design and technology (under the national curriculum reforms of 1990) promises to focus yet more The benefits of drawing 9

attention upon design in public fields such as architecture. architect or urban designer to give better shape to Hence the world of the professions has been opened to townscapes of the future.The environmental awareness challenge by an informed public,with design no longer that is a feature of our post-industrial society has the monopoly of people with letters after their names. encouraged a return to questions of firmness,commodity Before the modern design professions were and delight.These are the qualities the Arts and Crafts established,students and practitioners employed the architects sought to discover through their sketchbook sketchbook as a matter of course.They were not investigations.This book seeks to pick up the threads of a topographical artists but people in search of creative drawing tradition,and to use them to teach us lessons material.The Arts and Crafts architect George Devey about the contemporary city,its buildings and landscapes. studied under John Sell Cotman in Norwich in the 1830s, thereby absorbing not just Cotman's approach to DRAWING TODAY freehand drawing,but a whole collection of details of Drawing is a technique that allows the visual world to be windmills,barns,country houses,castles and cottages understood.It is a convention,based upon a degree of which later proved invaluable to Devey the architect. abstraction and analysis,which focuses the mind upon Similarly,Richard Norman Shaw,Ernest George,John aesthetic values.Whereas numbers are useful to Keppie and,later,Edwin Lutyens continued to use the economists,words to politicians and poets,lines are what sketchbook to record the towns and buildings not just of artists and designers employ.Visual literacy is developed Britain,but of Europe and the Middle East.One can trace through the medium of drawing. the origins of the architectural sketchbook back to the A distinction needs to be made between drawing as a Renaissance,but its blossoming as a creative force in its tool for designers and drawing as a technique employed own right owes much to the nineteenth century. by artists.Although both artists and designers use The sketchbook is a personal record-a dialogue drawing to help develop ideas,they do so in quite between artist and subject.The nature of the dialogue different ways.Artists are concerned with mark making, determines the quality or use of the finished drawing.By rather than descriptive drawing,and such marks are engaging in the subject,the artist,architect or student usually the genesis of later inspirational work.Their develops a sensitivity and understanding difficult to obtain drawings are invariably abstract and experimental even by other means.The blind copying of subject is not when based upon observation.Even when fine art necessarily useful-a critical stance is required.One may conventions are followed,the drawings made by artists never use the sketch produced of the town or landscape-tend to be fairly free form,employing mixed media and at least not directly-but,like reading a good book,the integrated with other visual material such as photography insights gained may prove invaluable later on. or collage.Fine art drawings,as against the drawings The designer needs to be accomplished in the three designers make,are likely to employ scraffitto (texture), main areas of drawing mentioned earlier.To be able to impasto (surface),and shade(light and dark to give the render a convincing perspective is an essential skill;to effect of modelling).Designer drawings,on the other explore the detailing of an unbuilt structure through hand,employ a more mechanistic response based upon sketches avoids pitfalls in the final design;and to use disciplined observation of what is before the observer. freehand drawing to learn from past examples helps the This is not to suggest that architects'drawings are 10 Understanding architecture through drawing

attention upon design in public fields such as architecture. Hence the world of the professions has been opened to challenge by an informed public, with design no longer the monopoly of people with letters after their names. Before the modern design professions were established, students and practitioners employed the sketchbook as a matter of course. They were not topographical artists but people in search of creative material. The Arts and Crafts architect George Devey studied under John Sell Cotman in Norwich in the 1830s, thereby absorbing not just Cotman’s approach to freehand drawing, but a whole collection of details of windmills, barns, country houses, castles and cottages which later proved invaluable to Devey the architect. Similarly, Richard Norman Shaw, Ernest George, John Keppie and, later, Edwin Lutyens continued to use the sketchbook to record the towns and buildings not just of Britain, but of Europe and the Middle East. One can trace the origins of the architectural sketchbook back to the Renaissance, but its blossoming as a creative force in its own right owes much to the nineteenth century. The sketchbook is a personal record – a dialogue between artist and subject. The nature of the dialogue determines the quality or use of the finished drawing. By engaging in the subject, the artist, architect or student develops a sensitivity and understanding difficult to obtain by other means. The blind copying of subject is not necessarily useful – a critical stance is required. One may never use the sketch produced of the town or landscape – at least not directly – but, like reading a good book, the insights gained may prove invaluable later on. The designer needs to be accomplished in the three main areas of drawing mentioned earlier. To be able to render a convincing perspective is an essential skill; to explore the detailing of an unbuilt structure through sketches avoids pitfalls in the final design; and to use freehand drawing to learn from past examples helps the architect or urban designer to give better shape to townscapes of the future. The environmental awareness that is a feature of our post-industrial society has encouraged a return to questions of firmness, commodity and delight. These are the qualities the Arts and Crafts architects sought to discover through their sketchbook investigations. This book seeks to pick up the threads of a drawing tradition, and to use them to teach us lessons about the contemporary city, its buildings and landscapes. DRAWING TODAY Drawing is a technique that allows the visual world to be understood. It is a convention, based upon a degree of abstraction and analysis, which focuses the mind upon aesthetic values. Whereas numbers are useful to economists, words to politicians and poets, lines are what artists and designers employ. Visual literacy is developed through the medium of drawing. A distinction needs to be made between drawing as a tool for designers and drawing as a technique employed by artists. Although both artists and designers use drawing to help develop ideas, they do so in quite different ways. Artists are concerned with mark making, rather than descriptive drawing, and such marks are usually the genesis of later inspirational work. Their drawings are invariably abstract and experimental even when based upon observation. Even when fine art conventions are followed, the drawings made by artists tend to be fairly free form, employing mixed media and integrated with other visual material such as photography or collage. Fine art drawings, as against the drawings designers make, are likely to employ scraffitto (texture), impasto (surface), and shade (light and dark to give the effect of modelling). Designer drawings, on the other hand, employ a more mechanistic response based upon disciplined observation of what is before the observer. This is not to suggest that architects’ drawings are 10 Understanding architecture through drawing

without abstraction or inspiration (although it is often types of precedent drawn from outside the world of the sadly the case),rather it serves to remind society that built environment.For example,Norman Foster admits designers solve both visual and functional problems to being influenced by the design of airport hangars and through the medium of drawing.Their drawings contain the aircraft themselves,whilst Santiago Calatrava is the genes that allow future objects to be designed,made inspired by structures and designs found in nature, or built.In this sense the freehand drawings of architects especially the shape and construction of bones.In both and designers are not only anchored in the context of the examples,sketches are used to learn about physical, present but contain the fertile possibility of the future. material and visual properties -ideas that then migrate To help architects understand form certain con-into their architecture. ventions have been developed.These include ortho- Design is ultimately about solving problems.The graphic projection and perspective drawing,both of which future exists as an imaginative idea within the mind of the have had their potential greatly amplified by computer-architect.Translating this concept into a building requires aided design(CAD)graphics.The combination of two-and drawings.The problems to be solved are functional, three-dimensional drawing techniques means that a technological,environmental and social.How sketches typical architect or product designer employs a mixture of and more formal drawings are employed by architects plan,section,elevation,axonometric and perspective varies but generally speaking sketching occurs at the drawings to communicate their intentions.Increasingly beginning of the process,with two-dimensional drawings these are all packaged into a CAD programme using (such as plans)being utilised more towards the end.The AutoCAD,ArchiCAD or similar graphics software.What first sketch made is instrumental and tells us a great deal this book is mainly concerned with,however,is the stage about how a designer thinks.If the early design sketch before formal drawing begins those preliminary takes the form of a section,the final building will be quite sketches often made in the field or studio that help to different had it been a plan.Likewise,had the first sketch develop visual awareness.These early sketches,placed been of a historic building of similar type,or of the for convenience in a sketchbook,allow precedent to be structure of the landscape,or of some abstract but understood,methods of construction to be analysed,related concept,the final design again would have relationships in space or time to be assessed,and much proceeded in a quite different fashion.For example,the more.For the designer the sketch is less an experimental architect Will Alsop often begins his design process with beginning based upon abstract concepts (although this a painting that embodies some of the abstract ideas that may be the case in the work of Zaha Hadid and Frank more formal drawing may eliminate.His paintings are Gehry),and more the critical examination of a building. colourful,joyful and rich in design potential.Another place,landscape or programme. architect,Edward Cullinan,carefully draws the visual The architect generally builds his or her designs upon relationship between his site and the wider city or precedent.Even the best architects learn from the landscape.In the process he discovers new ways of example of other architects'buildings,and often from solving the design problem-ways that subtly stitch the their own.Many cultivate an awareness not just of new building into the wider scene.With Cullinan,as with contemporary precedent but historic examples too. Foster,the focus and tension in these early sketches Certain architects also seek to understand and exploit informs the whole design process. 12 Understanding architecture through drawing

without abstraction or inspiration (although it is often sadly the case), rather it serves to remind society that designers solve both visual and functional problems through the medium of drawing. Their drawings contain the genes that allow future objects to be designed, made or built. In this sense the freehand drawings of architects and designers are not only anchored in the context of the present but contain the fertile possibility of the future. To help architects understand form certain conventions have been developed. These include orthographic projection and perspective drawing, both of which have had their potential greatly amplified by computeraided design (CAD) graphics. The combination of two- and three-dimensional drawing techniques means that a typical architect or product designer employs a mixture of plan, section, elevation, axonometric and perspective drawings to communicate their intentions. Increasingly these are all packaged into a CAD programme using AutoCAD, ArchiCAD or similar graphics software. What this book is mainly concerned with, however, is the stage before formal drawing begins – those preliminary sketches often made in the field or studio that help to develop visual awareness. These early sketches, placed for convenience in a sketchbook, allow precedent to be understood, methods of construction to be analysed, relationships in space or time to be assessed, and much more. For the designer the sketch is less an experimental beginning based upon abstract concepts (although this may be the case in the work of Zaha Hadid and Frank Gehry), and more the critical examination of a building, place, landscape or programme. The architect generally builds his or her designs upon precedent. Even the best architects learn from the example of other architects’ buildings, and often from their own. Many cultivate an awareness not just of contemporary precedent but historic examples too. Certain architects also seek to understand and exploit types of precedent drawn from outside the world of the built environment. For example, Norman Foster admits to being influenced by the design of airport hangars and the aircraft themselves, whilst Santiago Calatrava is inspired by structures and designs found in nature, especially the shape and construction of bones. In both examples, sketches are used to learn about physical, material and visual properties – ideas that then migrate into their architecture. Design is ultimately about solving problems. The future exists as an imaginative idea within the mind of the architect. Translating this concept into a building requires drawings. The problems to be solved are functional, technological, environmental and social. How sketches and more formal drawings are employed by architects varies but generally speaking sketching occurs at the beginning of the process, with two-dimensional drawings (such as plans) being utilised more towards the end. The first sketch made is instrumental and tells us a great deal about how a designer thinks. If the early design sketch takes the form of a section, the final building will be quite different had it been a plan. Likewise, had the first sketch been of a historic building of similar type, or of the structure of the landscape, or of some abstract but related concept, the final design again would have proceeded in a quite different fashion. For example, the architect Will Alsop often begins his design process with a painting that embodies some of the abstract ideas that more formal drawing may eliminate. His paintings are colourful, joyful and rich in design potential. Another architect, Edward Cullinan, carefully draws the visual relationship between his site and the wider city or landscape. In the process he discovers new ways of solving the design problem – ways that subtly stitch the new building into the wider scene. With Cullinan, as with Foster, the focus and tension in these early sketches informs the whole design process. 12 Understanding architecture through drawing