12Introductiontoenvironmentalimpactassessmentsubsidies,marketcreation and enforcement incentives.Thereportalsonotes,cautiouslytherecent addition of EIAto the"toolbox"of instruments.Subsequent UKgovernmentreports, such as Sustainable development:the UK strategy (HMG1994),recognize therole of EIA in contributing to sustainable development and raise the EIA profile amongkey usergroups.Changing perspectives on EIA rolesThe arguments for EIA vary in time, in space and according to the perspective of thoseinvolved.Fromaminimalistdefensiveperspective,developers,andpossiblyalsosomeparts of government, might see EIA as a necessary evil, an administrative exercise,something to be gone through that might result in some minor, often cosmetic, changes toadevelopment that wouldprobablyhave happened anyway.For thedeep ecologists"or"deepGreens",EIA cannot providetotal certaintyaboutthe environmental consequencesof development proposals; they feel that any projects carried out under uncertain or riskycircumstances should be abandoned.EIA and its methods must straddle such perspectives, partly reflecting the previousdiscussion on weak and strong sustainability.EIA can be, and is now often, seen as apositive process that seeks a harmonious relationship between development and theenvironment.Thenatureanduse of EIAwill change as relativevaluesandperspectivesalsochange.O'Riordan(1990)providesanappropriateconclusiontothissubsection:One can see that EIA is moving away from being a defensive tool of thekind that dominated the 1970s to a potentially exciting environmental andsocial betterment technique that may well come to take over the 1990s...If one sees EIA not so much as a technique, rather as a process that isconstantly changing intheface of shifting environmental politics andmanagerial capabilities,one can visualizeit as a sensitive barometer ofenvironmentalvaluesinacomplexenvironmental society.LongmayEIAthrive.1.4Projects, environmentand impactsThenature of majorprojectsAs noted in Section 1.2, EIA is relevant to a broad spectrum of development actions,including policies, plans, programmes and projects.The focus here is on projects,reflecting the dominant role of project EIA in practice.The strategic environmentalassessment of the "upper tiers" of development actions is considered further in Chapter13. The scope of projects covered by EIA is widening, and is discussed further in Chapter4.Traditionally,project EIA has applied to major projects; but what are major projects,and what criteria can be used to identify them? One could take Lord Morley's approachto defining an elephant: it's difficult, but you easily recognize one when you see it. In asimilar vein, the acronym LULU (locally unacceptable land-uses) has been applied in theUSA to many major projects, such as in energy,transport and manufacturing,clearly
subsidies, market creation and enforcement incentives. The report also notes, cautiously, the recent addition of EIA to the “toolbox” of instruments. Subsequent UK government reports, such as Sustainable development: the UK strategy (HMG 1994), recognize the role of EIA in contributing to sustainable development and raise the EIA profile among key user groups. Changing perspectives on EIA roles The arguments for EIA vary in time, in space and according to the perspective of those involved. From a minimalist defensive perspective, developers, and possibly also some parts of government, might see EIA as a necessary evil, an administrative exercise, something to be gone through that might result in some minor, often cosmetic, changes to a development that would probably have happened anyway. For the “deep ecologists” or “deep Greens”, EIA cannot provide total certainty about the environmental consequences of development proposals; they feel that any projects carried out under uncertain or risky circumstances should be abandoned. EIA and its methods must straddle such perspectives, partly reflecting the previous discussion on weak and strong sustainability. EIA can be, and is now often, seen as a positive process that seeks a harmonious relationship between development and the environment. The nature and use of EIA will change as relative values and perspectives also change. O’Riordan (1990) provides an appropriate conclusion to this subsection: One can see that EIA is moving away from being a defensive tool of the kind that dominated the 1970s to a potentially exciting environmental and social betterment technique that may well come to take over the 1990s. If one sees EIA not so much as a technique, rather as a process that is constantly changing in the face of shifting environmental politics and managerial capabilities, one can visualize it as a sensitive barometer of environmental values in a complex environmental society. Long may EIA thrive. 1.4 Projects, environment and impacts The nature of major projects As noted in Section 1.2, EIA is relevant to a broad spectrum of development actions, including policies, plans, programmes and projects. The focus here is on projects, reflecting the dominant role of project EIA in practice. The strategic environmental assessment of the “upper tiers” of development actions is considered further in Chapter 13. The scope of projects covered by EIA is widening, and is discussed further in Chapter 4. Traditionally, project EIA has applied to major projects; but what are major projects, and what criteria can be used to identify them? One could take Lord Morley’s approach to defining an elephant: it’s difficult, but you easily recognize one when you see it. In a similar vein, the acronym LULU (locally unacceptable land-uses) has been applied in the USA to many major projects, such as in energy, transport and manufacturing, clearly Introduction to environmental impact assessment 12
Introduction and principles13reflecting the public perception of the negative impacts associated with suchdevelopments. There is no easy definition, but it is possible to highlight some importantcharacteristics (Table 1.2).Most large projects involve considerable investment.In the UK context,"mega-projects" such as the Sizewell B PWR nuclear power station (budgeted to cost about f2billion), the Channel Tunnel (about f6 billion) and the proposed Severn Barrage (aboutf8billion)constituteoneend of the spectrum.Attheother endmaybe industrial estatedevelopments,small stretchesofroad,various waste-disposalTable1.2Characteristicsofmajorprojects.Substantialcapital investment。Cover large areas; employ large numbers (construction and/or operation)Complex array of organizational linksWide-ranging impacts (geographical and by type)Significantenvironmental impacts·Require special procedures.Extractive and primary (including agriculture); services; infrastructure and utilities·Band, pointfacilities,withconsiderably smaller,but still substantial,pricetags.Suchprojects oftencoverlarge areas and employ many workers, usually in construction, but also in operationfor some projects.They also invariably generate a complex array of inter-and intra-organizational activity during the various stages of their lives. The developments mayhave wide-ranging, long-term and often very significant impacts on the environment. Thedefinition of significance with regard to environmental effects is an important issue inEIA.It may relate, inter alia, to scale of development, to sensitivity of location and to thenature of adverse effects; it will be discussed further in later chapters. Like a large stonethrown into a pond, a major project can create major ripples with impacts spreading farand wide. In many respects such projects tend to be regarded as exceptional, requiringspecial procedures. In the UK, there procedures have included public inquiries, hybridbills that have to be passed through parliament (for examplefor the Channel Tunnel) andEIAprocedures.Major projects can also be defined according to type of activity. They include:manufacturing and extractiveprojects,such aspetrochemicalsplants, steelworks,minesand quarries; services projects, such as leisure developments, out-of-town shoppingcentres, new settlements and education and health facilities; and utilities andinfrastructure, such as power stations, roads, reservoirs, pipelines and barrages. An ECstudy adopted a further distinction between band and point infrastructures. Pointinfrastructure would include,forexample,power stations,bridges and harbours;band orlinear infrastructurewould include electricitytransmission lines,roads and canals (CEC1982).A major project also has a planning and development life-cycle, including a variety ofstages.It is important to recognize such stages, because impacts can vary considerably
reflecting the public perception of the negative impacts associated with such developments. There is no easy definition, but it is possible to highlight some important characteristics (Table 1.2). Most large projects involve considerable investment. In the UK context, “megaprojects” such as the Sizewell B PWR nuclear power station (budgeted to cost about £2 billion), the Channel Tunnel (about £6 billion) and the proposed Severn Barrage (about £8 billion) constitute one end of the spectrum. At the other end may be industrial estate developments, small stretches of road, various waste-disposal Table 1.2 Characteristics of major projects. ● Substantial capital investment ● Cover large areas; employ large numbers (construction and/or operation) ● Complex array of organizational links ● Wide-ranging impacts (geographical and by type) ● Significant environmental impacts ● Require special procedures ● Extractive and primary (including agriculture); services; infrastructure and utilities ● Band, point facilities, with considerably smaller, but still substantial, price tags. Such projects often cover large areas and employ many workers, usually in construction, but also in operation for some projects. They also invariably generate a complex array of inter- and intraorganizational activity during the various stages of their lives. The developments may have wide-ranging, long-term and often very significant impacts on the environment. The definition of significance with regard to environmental effects is an important issue in EIA. It may relate, inter alia, to scale of development, to sensitivity of location and to the nature of adverse effects; it will be discussed further in later chapters. Like a large stone thrown into a pond, a major project can create major ripples with impacts spreading far and wide. In many respects such projects tend to be regarded as exceptional, requiring special procedures. In the UK, there procedures have included public inquiries, hybrid bills that have to be passed through parliament (for example for the Channel Tunnel) and EIA procedures. Major projects can also be defined according to type of activity. They include: manufacturing and extractive projects, such as petrochemicals plants, steelworks, mines and quarries; services projects, such as leisure developments, out-of-town shopping centres, new settlements and education and health facilities; and utilities and infrastructure, such as power stations, roads, reservoirs, pipelines and barrages. An EC study adopted a further distinction between band and point infrastructures. Point infrastructure would include, for example, power stations, bridges and harbours; band or linear infrastructure would include electricity transmission lines, roads and canals (CEC 1982). A major project also has a planning and development life-cycle, including a variety of stages. It is important to recognize such stages, because impacts can vary considerably Introduction and principles 13
14Introductiontoenvironmentalimpactassessmentbetween them.The main stages in a project's life cycle are outlined in Figure 1.4.Theremay be variations in timing between stages,and internal variations within each stage, butthere is a broadly common sequence of events.In EIA, an important distinction isbetween“before the decision"(stages Aand B)and"after the decision"(stages C,D andE). As noted in Section 1.2, the monitoring and auditing of the implementation of aprojectfollowing approval are often absentfrom the EIAprocess.demonstration of needarea search (i.e. slte, route)APLANNINGassessmentofalternatives(re.market,technical constralnts,environmentaleffects,etc.)site selectlonBconsentprocedure,confllctCONFLICTresolution (including Ea)RESOLUTION---siteacqulsition,displacementofexisting usescCONSTRUCTIONconstructionoperation.Initial stagesD.fulloperatlonOPERATION.fluctuations inoperation.changes inuse,extension offacllityEclosedownoffacility/withdrawalCLOSEDOWNsiterestorationFigure1.4Generalizedplanninganddevelopmentlife-cycleformajorprojects (with particular reference to
between them. The main stages in a project’s life cycle are outlined in Figure 1.4. There may be variations in timing between stages, and internal variations within each stage, but there is a broadly common sequence of events. In EIA, an important distinction is between “before the decision” (stages A and B) and “after the decision” (stages C, D and E). As noted in Section 1.2, the monitoring and auditing of the implementation of a project following approval are often absent from the EIA process. Figure 1.4 Generalized planning and development life-cycle for major projects (with particular reference to Introduction to environmental impact assessment 14
15Introduction and principlesimpactassessmentonhostarea)(AdaptedfromBreeseetal.1965)Projects are initiated in several ways. Many are responses to market opportunities (e.g. aholiday village, a subregional shopping centre, a gas-fired power station); others may beseen as necessities (e.g. the Thames Barrier);: others may have an explicit prestige role(e.g.the programme of Grands Travaux in Paris including the Bastille Opera, Museed'Orsay and Great Arch). Many major projects are public-sector initiatives, but with themovetowardsprivatizationinmanycountries,thereTimescaleNuclearHolidayGravelAfforestationpower(years)villageschemeextractionstationoAAABABBCcc10-D1 (gravelextraction)Bc20-D2 (waste landill)E30+DDD40-E50-EA-planning60B-confictresolutionC-constructionD-operationE-closedown70.Figure1.5Broadvariationsinlifecyclestagesbetweendifferenttypesofproject
impact assessment on host area). (Adapted from Breese et al. 1965) Projects are initiated in several ways. Many are responses to market opportunities (e.g. a holiday village, a subregional shopping centre, a gas-fired power station); others may be seen as necessities (e.g. the Thames Barrier); others may have an explicit prestige role (e.g. the programme of Grands Travaux in Paris including the Bastille Opera, Musée d’Orsay and Great Arch). Many major projects are public-sector initiatives, but with the move towards privatization in many countries, there Figure 1.5 Broad variations in lifecycle stages between different types of project. Introduction and principles 15
16Introductiontoenvironmental impactassessmenthas been a move towards private sector funding,exemplified by such projects as theMersey Barrage and the Channel Tunnel. The initial planning stage A may take severalyears, and lead to a specific proposal for a particular site. It is at stage B that the variouscontrol and regulatory procedures,including EIA,normally come into play.Theconstruction stagecanbeparticularly disruptive,and maylast up to ten years for someprojects.Major projects invariably have long operational lives,although extractiveprojects can be short compared with infrastructure projects.The environmental impact ofthe eventual close-down ofa facility should not beforgotten;for nuclearpowerfacilitiesit is a major undertaking.Figure 1.5 shows how the stages in the life-cycles of differentkinds of project may vary.Table1.3Environmental componentsPhysical environment (adapted fromDOE1991)Air and atmosphereair qualityWater resources and waterwater quality and quantitybodiesSoil and geologyclassification, risks (e-g. erosion, contamination)Flora and faunabirds, mammals,fish, etc.; aquatic and terrestrial vegetationHuman beingsphysical and mental health and wellbeingLandscapecharacteristics and quality of landscapeCultural heritageconservation areas; built heritage; historic and archaeological sitesClimatetemperature, rainfall, wind, etc.Energylight, noise, vibration, etc.Socio-economic emvironmentEconomic base-directdirect employment; labour market characteristics; local and non-local trendsEconomicbase-indirectnon-basic and services employment; laboursupply and demandDemographypopulation structure and trendsHousingsupply and demandLocal servicesSupply and demand of services: health, education, police, etc.Socio-culturallifestyles, quality of life; social problems (e.g.crime); communitystress and conflictDimensionsof theenvironmentThe environmentcanbestructuredin severalways,including components,scale/spaceand time.A narrowdefinition ofenvironmental components wouldfocus primarily on thebiophysicalenvironment.For example,theUKDepartmentof theEnvironmenttakes theterm toincludeall media susceptible topollution,includingair,water and soil;flora
has been a move towards private sector funding, exemplified by such projects as the Mersey Barrage and the Channel Tunnel. The initial planning stage A may take several years, and lead to a specific proposal for a particular site. It is at stage B that the various control and regulatory procedures, including EIA, normally come into play. The construction stage can be particularly disruptive, and may last up to ten years for some projects. Major projects invariably have long operational lives, although extractive projects can be short compared with infrastructure projects. The environmental impact of the eventual close-down of a facility should not be forgotten; for nuclear power facilities it is a major undertaking. Figure 1.5 shows how the stages in the life-cycles of different kinds of project may vary. Table 1.3 Environmental components. Physical environment (adapted from DOE 1991) Air and atmosphere air quality Water resources and water bodies water quality and quantity Soil and geology classification, risks (e.g. erosion, contamination) Flora and fauna birds, mammals, fish, etc.; aquatic and terrestrial vegetation Human beings physical and mental health and wellbeing Landscape characteristics and quality of landscape Cultural heritage conservation areas; built heritage; historic and archaeological sites Climate temperature, rainfall, wind, etc. Energy light, noise, vibration, etc. Socio-economic environment Economic base—direct direct employment; labour market characteristics; local and nonlocal trends Economic base—indirect non-basic and services employment; labour supply and demand Demography population structure and trends Housing supply and demand Local services supply and demand of services: health, education, police, etc. Socio-cultural lifestyles, quality of life; social problems (e.g. crime); community stress and conflict Dimensions of the environment The environment can be structured in several ways, including components, scale/ space and time. A narrow definition of environmental components would focus primarily on the biophysical environment. For example, the UK Department of the Environment takes the term to include all media susceptible to pollution, including air, water and soil; flora, Introduction to environmental impact assessment 16