xiii CONTENTS CHAPTER ELEVEN 12-5 The Joule-Thomson Coefficient 672 REFRIGERATION CYCLES 607 12-6The△h,△u,and△s of Real Gases674 Enthalpy Changes of Real Gases 674 Internal Energy Changes of Real Gases 675 11-1 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps 608 Entropy Changes of Real Gases 676 11-2 The Reversed Carnot Cycle 609 Summary 679 References and Suggested Readings 680 11-3 The Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Problems 680 Cycle 610 11-4 Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle 613 CHAPTER THIRTEEN 11-5 Second-Law Analysis of Vapor-Compression GAS MIXTURES 687 Refrigeration Cycle 615 11-6 Selecting the Right Refrigerant 620 13-1 Composition of a Gas Mixture:Mass and Mole Fractions 688 11-7 Heat Pump Systems 622 11-8 Innovative Vapor-Compression Refrigeration 13-2 P-V-T Behavior of Gas Mixtures:Ideal and Real Gases 690 Systems 623 Ideal-Gas Mixtures 691 Cascade Refrigeration Systems 624 Real-Gas Mixtures 692 Multistage Compression Refrigeration Systems 626 13-3 Properties of Gas Mixtures:Ideal and Real Multipurpose Refrigeration Systems Gases 695 with a Single Compressor 628 Ideal-Gas Mixtures 696 Liquefaction of Gases 629 Real-Gas Mixtures 700 11-9 Gas Refrigeration Cycles 630 Topic of Special Interest:Chemical Potential and the 11-10 Absorption Refrigeration Systems 633 Separation Work of Mixtures 704 Topic of Special Interest:Thermoelectric Power Generation Summary 714 and Refrigeration Systems 636 References and Suggested Readings 715 Summary 638 Problems 716 References and Suggested Readings 639 Problems 639 CHAPTER FOURTEEN GAS-VAPOR MIXTURES AND CHAPTER TWELVE AIR-CONDITIONING 725 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTY RELATIONS 655 14-1 Dry and Atmospheric Air 726 12-1 A Little Math-Partial Derivatives and 14-2 Specific and Relative Humidity of Air 727 Associated Relations 656 14-3 Dew-Point Temperature 729 Partial Differentials 657 Partial Differential Relations 659 14-4 Adiabatic Saturation and Wet-Bulb 12-2 The Maxwell Relations 661 Temperatures 731 12-3 The Clapeyron Equation 662 14-5 The Psychrometric Chart 734 12-4 General Relations For du,dh,ds,cv, 14-6 Human Comfort and Air-Conditioning 735 andc。665 14-7 Air-Conditioning Processes 737 Internal Energy Changes 666 Simple Heating and Cooling (o constant)738 Enthalpy Changes 666 Heating with Humidification 739 Entropy Changes 667 Cooling with Dehumidification 740 Specific Heats c,and c 668 Evaporative Cooling 742
CONTENTS xiii chapter eleven REFRIGERATION CYCLES 607 11–1 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps 608 11–2 The Reversed Carnot Cycle 609 11–3 The Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle 610 11–4 Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle 613 11–5 Second-Law Analysis of Vapor- Compression Refrigeration Cycle 615 11–6 Selecting the Right Refrigerant 620 11–7 Heat Pump Systems 622 11–8 Innovative Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Systems 623 Cascade Refrigeration Systems 624 Multistage Compression Refrigeration Systems 626 Multipurpose Refrigeration Systems with a Single Compressor 628 Liquefaction of Gases 629 11–9 Gas Refrigeration Cycles 630 11–10 Absorption Refrigeration Systems 633 Topic of Special Interest: Thermoelectric Power Generation and Refrigeration Systems 636 Summary 638 References and Suggested Readings 639 Problems 639 chapter twelve THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTY RELATIONS 655 12–1 A Little Math—Partial Derivatives and Associated Relations 656 Partial Differentials 657 Partial Differential Relations 659 12–2 The Maxwell Relations 661 12–3 The Clapeyron Equation 662 12–4 General Relations For du, dh, ds, cv , and cp 665 Internal Energy Changes 666 Enthalpy Changes 666 Entropy Changes 667 Specific Heats cv and cp 668 12–5 The Joule-Thomson Coefficient 672 12–6 The Dh, Du, and Ds of Real Gases 674 Enthalpy Changes of Real Gases 674 Internal Energy Changes of Real Gases 675 Entropy Changes of Real Gases 676 Summary 679 References and Suggested Readings 680 Problems 680 chapter thirteen GAS MIXTURES 687 13–1 Composition of a Gas Mixture: Mass and Mole Fractions 688 13–2 P-v-T Behavior of Gas Mixtures: Ideal and Real Gases 690 Ideal-Gas Mixtures 691 Real-Gas Mixtures 692 13–3 Properties of Gas Mixtures: Ideal and Real Gases 695 Ideal-Gas Mixtures 696 Real-Gas Mixtures 700 Topic of Special Interest: Chemical Potential and the Separation Work of Mixtures 704 Summary 714 References and Suggested Readings 715 Problems 716 chapter fourteen GAS–VAPOR MIXTURES AND AIR-CONDITIONING 725 14–1 Dry and Atmospheric Air 726 14–2 Specific and Relative Humidity of Air 727 14–3 Dew-Point Temperature 729 14–4 Adiabatic Saturation and Wet-Bulb Temperatures 731 14– 5 The Psychrometric Chart 734 14–6 Human Comfort and Air-Conditioning 735 14–7 Air-Conditioning Processes 737 Simple Heating and Cooling (v 5 constant) 738 Heating with Humidification 739 Cooling with Dehumidification 740 Evaporative Cooling 742 cen98179_fm_i-xxvi.indd xiii 11/29/13 6:39 PM
xiv THERMODYNAMICS Adiabatic Mixing of Airstreams 743 Summary 828 Wet Cooling Towers 745 References and Suggested Readings 829 Problems 829 Summary 747 References and Suggested Readings 748 Problems 749 CHAPTER SEVENTEEN COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 839 CHAPTER FIFTEEN CHEMICAL REACTIONS 759 17-1 Stagnation Properties 840 17-2 Speed of Sound and Mach Number 843 15-1 Fuels and Combustion 760 17-3 One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow 845 15-2 Theoretical and Actual Combustion Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area 847 Processes 764 Property Relations for Isentropic Flow 15-3 Enthalpy of Formation and Enthalpy of of Ideal Gases 849 Combustion 771 17-4 Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles 851 15-4 First-Law Analysis of Reacting Converging Nozzles 852 Systems 774 Converging-Diverging Nozzles 856 Steady-Flow Systems 775 17-5 Shock Waves and Expansion Waves 860 Closed Systems 776 Normal Shocks 860 15-5 Adiabatic Flame Temperature 780 Oblique Shocks 866 Prandtl-Meyer Expansion Waves 870 15-6 Entropy Change of Reacting 17-6 Duct Flow with Heat Transfer and Negligible Systems 782 Friction (Rayleigh Flow)875 15-7 Second-Law Analysis of Reacting Systems 784 Property Relations for Rayleigh Flow 881 Topic of Special Interest:Fuel Cells 790 Summary 792 Choked Rayleigh Flow 882 References and Suggested Readings 793 17-7 Steam Nozzles 884 Problems 793 Summary 887 References and Suggested Readings 888 Problems 889 CHAPTER SIXTEEN CHEMICAL AND PHASE EQUILIBRIUM 805 CHAPTER EIGHTEEN 16-1 Criterion for Chemical (WEB CHAPTE R) Equilibrium 806 RENEWABLE ENERGY 16-2 The Equilibrium Constant for Ideal-Gas Mixtures 808 18-1 Introduction 16-3 Some Remarks about the K of Ideal-Gas 18-2 Solar Energy Mixtures 812 Solar Radiation 16-4 Chemical Equilibrium for Simultaneous Flat-Plate Solar Collector Reactions 816 Concentrating Solar Collector Linear Concentrating Solar Power Collector 16-5 Variation of K with Temperature 818 Solar-Power Tower Plant Solar Pond 16-6 Phase Equilibrium 820 Photovoltaic Cell Phase Equilibrium for a Single-Component System 820 Passive Solar The Phase Rule 822 Applications Phase Equilibrium for a Multicomponent System 822 Solar Heat Gain through Windows
xiv THERMODYNAMICS Adiabatic Mixing of Airstreams 743 Wet Cooling Towers 745 Summary 747 References and Suggested Readings 748 Problems 749 chapter fifteen CHEMICAL REACTIONS 759 15–1 Fuels and Combustion 760 15–2 Theoretical and Actual Combustion Processes 764 15–3 Enthalpy of Formation and Enthalpy of Combustion 771 15–4 First-Law Analysis of Reacting Systems 774 Steady-Flow Systems 775 Closed Systems 776 15–5 Adiabatic Flame Temperature 780 15–6 Entropy Change of Reacting Systems 782 15–7 Second-Law Analysis of Reacting Systems 784 Topic of Special Interest: Fuel Cells 790 Summary 792 References and Suggested Readings 793 Problems 793 chapter sixteen CHEMICAL AND PHASE EQUILIBRIUM 805 16–1 Criterion for Chemical Equilibrium 806 16–2 The Equilibrium Constant for Ideal-Gas Mixtures 808 16–3 Some Remarks about the Kp of Ideal-Gas Mixtures 812 16–4 Chemical Equilibrium for Simultaneous Reactions 816 16–5 Variation of Kp with Temperature 818 16–6 Phase Equilibrium 820 Phase Equilibrium for a Single-Component System 820 The Phase Rule 822 Phase Equilibrium for a Multicomponent System 822 Summary 828 References and Suggested Readings 829 Problems 829 chapter seventeen COMPRESSIBLE FLOW 839 17–1 Stagnation Properties 840 17–2 Speed of Sound and Mach Number 843 17–3 One-Dimensional Isentropic Flow 845 Variation of Fluid Velocity with Flow Area 847 Property Relations for Isentropic Flow of Ideal Gases 849 17–4 Isentropic Flow Through Nozzles 851 Converging Nozzles 852 Converging–Diverging Nozzles 856 17–5 Shock Waves and Expansion Waves 860 Normal Shocks 860 Oblique Shocks 866 Prandtl–Meyer Expansion Waves 870 17–6 Duct Flow with Heat Transfer and Negligible Friction (Rayleigh Flow) 875 Property Relations for Rayleigh Flow 881 Choked Rayleigh Flow 882 17–7 Steam Nozzles 884 Summary 887 References and Suggested Readings 888 Problems 889 c h a p t e r e i g h t e e n (web chapter) RENEWABLE ENERGY 18–1 Introduction 18-2 Solar Energy Solar Radiation Flat-Plate Solar Collector Concentrating Solar Collector Linear Concentrating Solar Power Collector Solar-Power Tower Plant Solar Pond Photovoltaic Cell Passive Solar Applications Solar Heat Gain through Windows cen98179_fm_i-xxvi.indd xiv 11/29/13 6:39 PM
XV CONTENTS 18-3 Wind Energy Figure A-14 P-h diagram for Wind Turbine Types and Power refrigerant-134a 921 Performance Curve Figure A-15 Nelson-Obert generalized Wind Power Potential Wind Power Density compressibility chart 922 Wind Turbine Efficiency Table A-16 Properties of the atmosphere at high Betz Limit for Wind Turbine Efficiency altitude 923 18-4 Hydropower Table A-17 Ideal-gas properties Analysis of Hydroelectric Power Plant of air 924 Turbine Types 18-5 Geothermal Energy Table A-18 Ideal-gas properties of nitrogen, N2926 Geothermal Power Production 18-6 Biomass Energy Table A-19 Ideal-gas properties of oxygen, 02928 Biomass Resources Conversion of Biomass to Biofuel Table A-20 Ideal-gas properties of carbon dioxide, Biomass Products C02930 Electricity and Heat Production by Biomass Table A-21 Ideal-gas properties of carbon Solid Municipality Waste monoxide,CO 932 Summary Table A-22 References and Suggested Readings Ideal-gas properties of hydrogen, Problems H2934 Table A-23 Ideal-gas properties of water vapor, H0935 APPENDIX ONE Table A-24 Ideal-gas properties of monatomic oxygen,O 937 PROPERTY TABLES AND CHARTS Table A-25 Ideal-gas properties of hydroxyl, (SI UNITS)897 0H937 Table A-26 Enthalpy of formation,Gibbs function Table A-1 Molar mass,gas constant,and critical- of formation,and absolute entropy at point properties 898 25C,1atm938 Table A-2 Ideal-gas specific heats of various Table A-27 Properties of some common fuels and common gases 899 hydrocarbons 939 Table A-3 Properties of common liquids,solids, Table A-28 Natural logarithms of the equilibrium and foods 902 constant K 940 Table A-4 Saturated water-Temperature Figure A-29 Generalized enthalpy departure table 904 chart 941 Table A-5 Saturated water-Pressure table 906 Figure A-30 Generalized entropy departure Table A-6 Superheated water 908 chart 942 Table A-7 Compressed liquid water 912 Figure A-31 Psychrometric chart at 1 atm total Table A-8 Saturated ice-water vapor 913 pressure 943 Figure A-9 Table A-32 T-s diagram for water 914 One-dimensional isentropic compressible-flow functions for an Figure A-10 Mollier diagram for water 915 ideal gas with k 1.4 944 Table A-11 Saturated refrigerant-134a- Table A-33 One-dimensional normal-shock Temperature table 916 functions for an ideal gas Table A-12 Saturated refrigerant-134a- with k 1.4 945 Pressure table 918 Table A-34 Rayleigh flow functions for an ideal Table A-13 Superheated refrigerant-134a 919 gas with k 1.4 946
CONTENTS xv Figure A–14 P-h diagram for refrigerant-134a 921 Figure A–15 Nelson–Obert generalized compressibility chart 922 Table A–16 Properties of the atmosphere at high altitude 923 Table A–17 Ideal-gas properties of air 924 Table A–18 Ideal-gas properties of nitrogen, N2 926 Table A–19 Ideal-gas properties of oxygen, O2 928 Table A–20 Ideal-gas properties of carbon dioxide, CO2 930 Table A–21 Ideal-gas properties of carbon monoxide, CO 932 Table A–22 Ideal-gas properties of hydrogen, H2 934 Table A–23 Ideal-gas properties of water vapor, H2O 935 Table A–24 Ideal-gas properties of monatomic oxygen, O 937 Table A–25 Ideal-gas properties of hydroxyl, OH 937 Table A–26 Enthalpy of formation, Gibbs function of formation, and absolute entropy at 258C, 1 atm 938 Table A–27 Properties of some common fuels and hydrocarbons 939 Table A–28 Natural logarithms of the equilibrium constant Kp 940 Figure A–29 Generalized enthalpy departure chart 941 Figure A–30 Generalized entropy departure chart 942 Figure A–31 Psychrometric chart at 1 atm total pressure 943 Table A–32 One-dimensional isentropic compressible-flow functions for an ideal gas with k 5 1.4 944 Table A–33 One-dimensional normal-shock functions for an ideal gas with k 5 1.4 945 Table A–34 Rayleigh flow functions for an ideal gas with k 5 1.4 946 18-3 Wind Energy Wind Turbine Types and Power Performance Curve Wind Power Potential Wind Power Density Wind Turbine Efficiency Betz Limit for Wind Turbine Efficiency 18-4 Hydropower Analysis of Hydroelectric Power Plant Turbine Types 18–5 Geothermal Energy Geothermal Power Production 18–6 Biomass Energy Biomass Resources Conversion of Biomass to Biofuel Biomass Products Electricity and Heat Production by Biomass Solid Municipality Waste Summary References and Suggested Readings Problems appendix one PROPERTY TABLES AND CHARTS (SI UNITS) 897 Table A–1 Molar mass, gas constant, and criticalpoint properties 898 Table A–2 Ideal-gas specific heats of various common gases 899 Table A–3 Properties of common liquids, solids, and foods 902 Table A–4 Saturated water—Temperature table 904 Table A–5 Saturated water—Pressure table 906 Table A–6 Superheated water 908 Table A–7 Compressed liquid water 912 Table A–8 Saturated ice–water vapor 913 Figure A–9 T-s diagram for water 914 Figure A–10 Mollier diagram for water 915 Table A–11 Saturated refrigerant-134a— Temperature table 916 Table A–12 Saturated refrigerant-134a— Pressure table 918 Table A–13 Superheated refrigerant-134a 919 cen98179_fm_i-xxvi.indd xv 11/29/13 6:39 PM
XVI THERMODYNAMICS APPENDIX TWO Figure A-14E P-h diagram for refrigerant-134a 970 Table A-16E Properties of the atmosphere at high PROPERTY TABLES AND CHARTS altitude 971 (ENGLISH UNITS)947 Table A-17E Ideal-gas properties of air 972 Table A-1E Molar mass,gas constant,and critical- Table A-18E Ideal-gas properties of nitrogen, N2974 point properties 948 Table A-2E Ideal-gas specific heats of various Table A-19E Ideal-gas properties of oxygen,O2 976 common gases 949 Table A-20E Ideal-gas properties of carbon dioxide, Table A-3E C02978 Properties of common liquids,solids, and foods 952 Table A-21E Ideal-gas properties of carbon monoxide,CO 980 Table A-4E Saturated water-Temperature table 954 Table A-22E Ideal-gas properties of hydrogen, H2982 Table A-5E Saturated water-Pressure table 956 Table A-23E Ideal-gas properties of water vapor, Table A-6E Superheated water 958 H0983 Table A-7E Compressed liquid water 962 Table A-26E Enthalpy of formation,Gibbs function Table A-8E Saturated ice-water vapor 963 of formation,and absolute entropy at Figure A-9E T-s diagram for water 964 77C,1atm985 Figure A-10E Mollier diagram for water 965 Table A-27E Properties of some common fuels and Table A-11E Saturated refrigerant-134a- hydrocarbons 986 Temperature table 966 Figure A-31E Psychrometric chart at 1 atm total Table A-12E Saturated refrigerant-134a-Pressure pressure 987 table 967 Table A-13E Superheated refrigerant-134a 968 INDEX 989
xvi THERMODYNAMICS appendix two PROPERTY TABLES AND CHARTS (ENGLISH UNITS) 947 Table A–1E Molar mass, gas constant, and criticalpoint properties 948 Table A–2E Ideal-gas specific heats of various common gases 949 Table A–3E Properties of common liquids, solids, and foods 952 Table A–4E Saturated water—Temperature table 954 Table A–5E Saturated water—Pressure table 956 Table A–6E Superheated water 958 Table A–7E Compressed liquid water 962 Table A–8E Saturated ice–water vapor 963 Figure A–9E T-s diagram for water 964 Figure A–10E Mollier diagram for water 965 Table A–11E Saturated refrigerant-134a— Temperature table 966 Table A–12E Saturated refrigerant-134a—Pressure table 967 Table A–13E Superheated refrigerant-134a 968 Figure A–14E P-h diagram for refrigerant-134a 970 Table A–16E Properties of the atmosphere at high altitude 971 Table A–17E Ideal-gas properties of air 972 Table A–18E Ideal-gas properties of nitrogen, N2 974 Table A–19E Ideal-gas properties of oxygen, O2 976 Table A–20E Ideal-gas properties of carbon dioxide, CO2 978 Table A–21E Ideal-gas properties of carbon monoxide, CO 980 Table A–22E Ideal-gas properties of hydrogen, H2 982 Table A–23E Ideal-gas properties of water vapor, H2O 983 Table A–26E Enthalpy of formation, Gibbs function of formation, and absolute entropy at 778C, 1 atm 985 Table A–27E Properties of some common fuels and hydrocarbons 986 Figure A–31E Psychrometric chart at 1 atm total pressure 987 INDEX 989 cen98179_fm_i-xxvi.indd xvi 11/29/13 6:39 PM
PREFACE BACKGROUND Thermodynamics is an exciting and fascinating subject that deals with energy, and thermodynamics has long been an essential part of engineering curricula all over the world.It has a broad application area ranging from microscopic organisms to common household appliances,transportation vehicles,power generation systems,and even philosophy.This introductory book contains sufficient material for two sequential courses in thermodynamics.Students are assumed to have an adequate background in calculus and physics. OBJECTIVES This book is intended for use as a textbook by undergraduate engineering stu- dents in their sophomore or junior year,and as a reference book for practicing engineers.The objectives of this text are To cover the basic principles of thermodynamics. To present a wealth of real-world engineering examples to give students a feel for how thermodynamics is applied in engineering practice. To develop an intuitive understanding of thermodynamics by emphasiz- ing the physics and physical arguments that underpin the theory. It is our hope that this book,through its careful explanations of concepts and its use of numerous practical examples and figures,helps students develop the necessary skills to bridge the gap between knowledge and the confidence to properly apply knowledge. PHILOSOPHY AND GOAL The philosophy that contributed to the overwhelming popularity of the prior editions of this book has remained unchanged in this edition.Namely,our goal has been to offer an engineering textbook that Communicates directly to the minds of tomorrow's engineers in a simple yet precise manner. Leads students toward a clear understanding and firm grasp of the basic principles of thermodynamics. Encourages creative thinking and development of a deeper understand- ing and intuitive feel for thermodynamics. Is read by students with interest and enthusiasm rather than being used as an aid to solve problems. Special effort has been made to appeal to students'natural curiosity and to help them explore the various facets of the exciting subject area of thermo- dynamics.The enthusiastic responses we have received from users of prior editions-from small colleges to large universities all over the world-and the continued translations into new languages indicate that our objectives
BACKGROUND Thermodynamics is an exciting and fascinating subject that deals with energy, and thermodynamics has long been an essential part of engineering curricula all over the world. It has a broad application area ranging from microscopic organisms to common household appliances, transportation vehicles, power generation systems, and even philosophy. This introductory book contains sufficient material for two sequential courses in thermodynamics. Students are assumed to have an adequate background in calculus and physics. OBJECTIVES This book is intended for use as a textbook by undergraduate engineering students in their sophomore or junior year, and as a reference book for practicing engineers. The objectives of this text are • To cover the basic principles of thermodynamics. • To present a wealth of real-world engineering examples to give students a feel for how thermodynamics is applied in engineering practice. • To develop an intuitive understanding of thermodynamics by emphasizing the physics and physical arguments that underpin the theory. It is our hope that this book, through its careful explanations of concepts and its use of numerous practical examples and figures, helps students develop the necessary skills to bridge the gap between knowledge and the confidence to properly apply knowledge. PHILOSOPHY AND GOAL The philosophy that contributed to the overwhelming popularity of the prior editions of this book has remained unchanged in this edition. Namely, our goal has been to offer an engineering textbook that • Communicates directly to the minds of tomorrow’s engineers in a simple yet precise manner. • Leads students toward a clear understanding and firm grasp of the basic principles of thermodynamics. • Encourages creative thinking and development of a deeper understanding and intuitive feel for thermodynamics. • Is read by students with interest and enthusiasm rather than being used as an aid to solve problems. Special effort has been made to appeal to students’ natural curiosity and to help them explore the various facets of the exciting subject area of thermodynamics. The enthusiastic responses we have received from users of prior editions—from small colleges to large universities all over the world—and the continued translations into new languages indicate that our objectives Preface cen98179_fm_i-xxvi.indd xvii 11/29/13 6:39 PM