hao” wop PART I CHAPTER 1 Introduction to The History and Microbiology Scope of Microbiology Chapter 1 Chapter2 robial Structure: reparation Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Outline and Function Concepts 1.1 The Discovery of isms that ar 12 13 The Role of Microorga in Diseas tioo' 14 and 1.5 16e 1.7 The F ology
Prescott−Harley−Klein: Microbiology, Fifth Edition I. Introduction to Microbiology 1. The History and Scope of Microbiology © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2002 PART I Introduction to Microbiology Chapter 1 The History and Scope of Microbiology Chapter 2 The Study of Microbial Structure: Microscopy and Specimen Preparation Chapter 3 Procaryotic Cell Structure and Function Chapter 4 Eucaryotic Cell Structure and Function CHAPTER 1 The History and Scope of Microbiology Louis Pasteur, one of the greatest scientists of the nineteenth century, maintained that “Science knows no country, because knowledge belongs to humanity, and is a torch which illuminates the world.” Outline 1.1 The Discovery of Microorganisms 2 1.2 The Conflict over Spontaneous Generation 2 1.3 The Role of Microorganisms in Disease 7 Recognition of the Relationship between Microorganisms and Disease 7 The Development of Techniques for Studying Microbial Pathogens 8 Immunological Studies 9 1.4 Industrial Microbiology and Microbial Ecology 10 1.5 Members of the Microbial World 11 1.6 The Scope and Relevance of Microbiology 11 1.7 The Future of Microbiology 13 Concepts 1. Microbiology is the study of organisms that are usually too small to be seen by the unaided eye; it employs techniques—such as sterilization and the use of culture media—that are required to isolate and grow these microorganisms. 2. Microorganisms are not spontaneously generated from inanimate matter but arise from other microorganisms. 3. Many diseases result from viral, bacterial, fungal, or protozoan infections. Koch’s postulates may be used to establish a causal link between the suspected microorganism and a disease. 4. The development of microbiology as a scientific discipline has depended on the availability of the microscope and the ability to isolate and grow pure cultures of microorganisms. 5. Microorganisms are responsible for many of the changes observed in organic and inorganic matter (e.g., fermentation and the carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur cycles that occur in nature). 6. Microorganisms have two fundamentally different types of cells—procaryotic and eucaryotic—and are distributed among several kingdoms or domains. 7. Microbiology is a large discipline, which has a great impact on other areas of biology and general human welfare
and owth of micr nisms -Louis Pasteu dev iology as a science is des ribe in the fou ne the imporance of microbio 1.1 The Discovery of Microorganisms rganisms are indis of They make other the Roman philosopher Lucrctius (about 955 B.C. used by invisible sand webs ied by galileo cst of the New World in 1347 Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)of Delft,Holland (figure 1.1a) le)over the next 8o vear pare time constructing simple microscopesc dof dou ared the way for the Re- .16).Hie glass lens d between two silve pean culture and p 30( and other and he may haveuminated his liquid by placing n8788 pohe form of dark-field illumination (see chaprer 2)and made bacte cineand oth red.The r ture of the mi the or elevance.and future of modern microbiology are discussed 1.2 The Conflict over Spontaneous Generation Microbiology ofen has been he le (384-322 B.c.)thought some and agents this s mall and smaller Its subiects za (see tab di(162 9 out a se f th and larger Fore hac7obio d was cthat croscope.h dis h ir eggs on the unc red meat and maggots developed.Th hatthe field be de fined not only in terms of the size of its subjects but also in terms laid their eggs on the gauze;these eggs produced maggots
Prescott−Harley−Klein: Microbiology, Fifth Edition I. Introduction to Microbiology 1. The History and Scope of Microbiology © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2002 Dans les champs de l’observation, le hasard ne favorise que les esprits préparés. (In the field of observation, chance favors only prepared minds.) —Louis Pasteur One can’t overemphasize the importance of microbiology. Society benefits from microorganisms in many ways. They are necessary for the production of bread, cheese, beer, antibiotics, vaccines, vitamins, enzymes, and many other important products. Indeed, modern biotechnology rests upon a microbiological foundation. Microorganisms are indispensable components of our ecosystem. They make possible the cycles of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur that take place in terrestrial and aquatic systems. They also are a source of nutrients at the base of all ecological food chains and webs. Of course microorganisms also have harmed humans and disrupted society over the millennia. Microbial diseases undoubtedly played a major role in historical events such as the decline of the Roman Empire and the conquest of the New World. In 1347 plague or black death (see chapter 39) struck Europe with brutal force. By 1351, only four years later, the plague had killed 1/3 of the population (about 25 million people). Over the next 80 years, the disease struck again and again, eventually wiping out 75% of the European population. Some historians believe that this disaster changed European culture and prepared the way for the Renaissance. Today the struggle by microbiologists and others against killers like AIDS and malaria continues. The biology of AIDS and its impact (pp. 878–84) In this introductory chapter the historical development of the science of microbiology is described, and its relationship to medicine and other areas of biology is considered. The nature of the microbial world is then surveyed to provide a general idea of the organisms and agents that microbiologists study. Finally, the scope, relevance, and future of modern microbiology are discussed. Microbiology often has been defined as the study of organisms and agents too small to be seen clearly by the unaided eye—that is, the study of microorganisms. Because objects less than about one millimeter in diameter cannot be seen clearly and must be examined with a microscope, microbiology is concerned primarily with organisms and agents this small and smaller. Its subjects are viruses, bacteria, many algae and fungi, and protozoa (see table 34.1). Yet other members of these groups, particularly some of the algae and fungi, are larger and quite visible. For example, bread molds and filamentous algae are studied by microbiologists, yet are visible to the naked eye. Two bacteria that are visible without a microscope, Thiomargarita and Epulopiscium, also have been discovered (see p. 45). The difficulty in setting the boundaries of microbiology led Roger Stanier to suggest that the field be defined not only in terms of the size of its subjects but also in terms 2 Chapter 1The History and Scope of Microbiology of its techniques. A microbiologist usually first isolates a specific microorganism from a population and then cultures it. Thus microbiology employs techniques—such as sterilization and the use of culture media—that are necessary for successful isolation and growth of microorganisms. The development of microbiology as a science is described in the following sections. Table 1.1 presents a summary of some of the major events in this process and their relationship to other historical landmarks. 1.1 The Discovery of Microorganisms Even before microorganisms were seen, some investigators suspected their existence and responsibility for disease. Among others, the Roman philosopher Lucretius (about 98–55 B.C.) and the physician Girolamo Fracastoro (1478–1553) suggested that disease was caused by invisible living creatures. The earliest microscopic observations appear to have been made between 1625 and 1630 on bees and weevils by the Italian Francesco Stelluti, using a microscope probably supplied by Galileo. However, the first person to observe and describe microorganisms accurately was the amateur microscopist Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) of Delft, Holland (figure 1.1a). Leeuwenhoek earned his living as a draper and haberdasher (a dealer in men’s clothing and accessories), but spent much of his spare time constructing simple microscopes composed of double convex glass lenses held between two silver plates (figure 1.1b). His microscopes could magnify around 50 to 300 times, and he may have illuminated his liquid specimens by placing them between two pieces of glass and shining light on them at a 45° angle to the specimen plane. This would have provided a form of dark-field illumination (see chapter 2) and made bacteria clearly visible (figure 1.1c). Beginning in 1673 Leeuwenhoek sent detailed letters describing his discoveries to the Royal Society of London. It is clear from his descriptions that he saw both bacteria and protozoa. 1.2 The Conflict over Spontaneous Generation From earliest times, people had believed in spontaneous generation—that living organisms could develop from nonliving matter. Even the great Aristotle (384–322 B.C.) thought some of the simpler invertebrates could arise by spontaneous generation. This view finally was challenged by the Italian physician Francesco Redi (1626–1697), who carried out a series of experiments on decaying meat and its ability to produce maggots spontaneously. Redi placed meat in three containers. One was uncovered, a second was covered with paper, and the third was covered with a fine gauze that would exclude flies. Flies laid their eggs on the uncovered meat and maggots developed. The other two pieces of meat did not produce maggots spontaneously. However, flies were attracted to the gauze-covered container and laid their eggs on the gauze; these eggs produced maggots
12 Table 1.1 Some Important Events in the Development of Microbiology Other Historical Events -1608 y1800 and Schl the Cell The 1847-1850 izeau (1849 1857 C) (15) 1876-1877 c by Edison's first light bulb (1879) color photograph (1881) M) 1885 rvehicles developed by Daimler (1586 188 -189 rsinia pestis.the cause of plaeu nsmitted by the mosquit (0
Prescott−Harley−Klein: Microbiology, Fifth Edition I. Introduction to Microbiology 1. The History and Scope of Microbiology © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2002 1.2 The Conflict over Spontaneous Generation 3 Table 1.1 Some Important Events in the Development of Microbiology Date Microbiological History Other Historical Events 1546 Fracastoro suggests that invisible organisms cause disease Publication of Copernicus’s work on the heliocentric solar system (1543) 1590–1608 Jansen develops first useful compound microscope Shakespeare’s Hamlet (1600–1601) 1676 Leeuwenhoek discovers “animalcules” J. S. Bach and Handel born (1685) 1688 Redi publishes work on spontaneous generation of maggots Isaac Newton publishes the Principia (1687) Linnaeus’s Systema Naturae (1735) Mozart born (1756) 1765–1776 Spallanzani attacks spontaneous generation 1786 Müller produces first classification of bacteria French Revolution (1789) 1798 Jenner introduces cowpox vaccination for smallpox Beethoven’s first symphony (1800) The battle of Waterloo and the defeat of Napoleon (1815) Faraday demonstrates the principle of an electric motor (1821) 1838–1839 Schwann and Schleiden, the Cell Theory England issues first postage stamp (1840) 1835–1844 Bassi discovers that silkworm disease is caused by a fungus and proposes that many diseases are microbial in origin Marx’s Communist Manifesto (1848) 1847–1850 Semmelweis shows that childbed fever is transmitted by Velocity of light first measured by Fizeau (1849) physicians and introduces the use of antiseptics to prevent the disease Clausius states the first and second laws of thermodynamics (1850) 1849 Snow studies the epidemiology of a cholera epidemic Graham distinguishes between colloids and crystalloids in London Melville’s Moby Dick (1851) Otis installs first safe elevator (1854) Bunsen introduces the use of the gas burner (1855) 1857 Pasteur shows that lactic acid fermentation is due to a microorganism 1858 Virchow states that all cells come from cells Darwin’s On the Origin of Species (1859) 1861 Pasteur shows that microorganisms do not arise by American Civil War (1861–1865) spontaneous generation Mendel publishes his genetics experiments (1865) Cross-Atlantic cable laid (1865) 1867 Lister publishes his work on antiseptic surgery Dostoevski’s Crime and Punishment (1866) 1869 Miescher discovers nucleic acids Franco-German War (1870–1871) 1876–1877 Koch demonstrates that anthrax is caused by Bell invents telephone (1876) Bacillus anthracis Edison’s first light bulb (1879) 1880 Laveran discovers Plasmodium, the cause of malaria 1881 Koch cultures bacteria on gelatin Ives produces first color photograph (1881) Pasteur develops anthrax vaccine 1882 Koch discovers tubercle bacillus, Mycobacterium tuberculosis First central electric power station constructed by Edison (1882) 1884 Koch’s postulates first published Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884) Metchnikoff describes phagocytosis Autoclave developed Gram stain developed 1885 Pasteur develops rabies vaccine First motor vehicles developed by Daimler (1885–1886) Escherich discovers Escherichia coli, a cause of diarrhea 1886 Fraenkel discovers Streptococcus pneumoniae, a cause of pneumonia 1887 Petri dish (plate) developed by Richard Petri 1887–1890 Winogradsky studies sulfur and nitrifying bacteria Hertz discovers radio waves (1888) 1889 Beijerinck isolates root nodule bacteria Eastman makes box camera (1888) 1890 Von Behring prepares antitoxins for diphtheria and tetanus 1892 Ivanowsky provides evidence for virus causation of tobacco mosaic disease First zipper patented (1895) 1894 Kitasato and Yersin discover Yersinia pestis, the cause of plague 1895 Bordet discovers complement Röntgen discovers X rays (1895) 1896 Van Ermengem discovers Clostridium botulinum, the cause of botulism 1897 Buchner prepares extract of yeast that ferments Thomson discovers the electron (1897) Ross shows that malaria parasite is carried by the mosquito Spanish-American War (1898) 1899 Beijerinck proves that a virus particle causes the tobacco mosaic disease 1900 Reed proves that yellow fever is transmitted by the mosquito Planck develops the quantum theory (1900) 1902 Landsteiner discovers blood groups First electric typewriter (1901)
eiea Table 1.1 Continued Date Microbiological History Other Historical Events 1905 Scha nn show Treponema pallidum Einstein's special theory of relativity (1905) ticks and ca fotTFmda90g 1915-1917 D'Herellead bacterial virse Lindberg's flight (197) 8 ellor of Gemmany (1933) 1937 18 duced (194) 1946 Lederberg and Tatum describe bacterial conjugation 1949 n War begin DNA oded (1952 1953 hools(1954 re for DNA 195 (9) 1962 Arab-l 1970 1973 Ty973 197s ergale cover-up(1 1977 Canal Treaty (197)
Prescott−Harley−Klein: Microbiology, Fifth Edition I. Introduction to Microbiology 1. The History and Scope of Microbiology © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2002 4 Chapter 1The History and Scope of Microbiology Table 1.1 Continued Date Microbiological History Other Historical Events 1903 Wright and others discover antibodies in the blood of First powered aircraft (1903) immunized animals 1905 Schaudinn and Hoffmann show Treponema pallidum Einstein’s special theory of relativity (1905) causes syphilis 1906 Wassermann develops complement fixation test for syphilis 1909 Ricketts shows that Rocky Mountain spotted fever is transmitted First model T Ford (1908) by ticks and caused by a microbe (Rickettsia rickettsii) Peary and Hensen reach North Pole (1909) 1910 Ehrlich develops chemotherapeutic agent for syphilis Rutherford presents his theory of the atom (1911) 1911 Rous discovers a virus that causes cancer in chickens Picasso and cubism (1912) World War I begins (1914) 1915–1917 D’Herelle and Twort discover bacterial viruses Einstein’s general theory of relativity (1916) Russian Revolution (1917) 1921 Fleming discovers lysozyme 1923 First edition of Bergey’s Manual Lindberg’s transatlantic flight (1927) 1928 Griffith discovers bacterial transformation 1929 Fleming discovers penicillin Stock market crash (1929) 1931 Van Niel shows that photosynthetic bacteria use reduced compounds as electron donors without producing oxygen 1933 Ruska develops first transmission electron microscope Hitler becomes chancellor of Germany (1933) 1935 Stanley crystallizes the tobacco mosaic virus Domagk discovers sulfa drugs 1937 Chatton divides living organisms into procaryotes Krebs discovers the citric acid cycle (1937) and eucaryotes World War II begins (1939) 1941 Beadle and Tatum, one-gene-one-enzyme hypothesis 1944 Avery shows that DNA carries information during The insecticide DDT introduced (1944) transformation Waksman discovers streptomycin Atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki (1945) 1946 Lederberg and Tatum describe bacterial conjugation United Nations formed (1945) First electronic computer (1946) 1949 Enders, Weller, and Robbins grow poliovirus in human tissue cultures 1950 Lwoff induces lysogenic bacteriophages Korean War begins (1950) 1952 Hershey and Chase show that bacteriophages inject DNA First hydrogen bomb exploded (1952) into host cells Stalin dies (1952) Zinder and Lederberg discover generalized transduction First commercial transistorized product (1952) 1953 Phase-contrast microscope developed U.S. Supreme Court rules against segregated schools (1954) Medawar discovers immune tolerance Watson and Crick propose the double helix structure for DNA 1955 Jacob and Wollman discover the F factor is a plasmid Montgomery bus boycott (1955) Jerne and Burnet propose the clonal selection theory Sputnik launched by Soviet Union (1957) 1959 Yalow develops the radioimmunoassay technique Birth control pill (1960) 1961 Jacob and Monod propose the operon model of gene regulation First humans in space (1961) 1961–1966 Nirenberg, Khorana, and others elucidate the genetic code Cuban missile crisis (1962) Nuclear test ban treaty (1963) 1962 Porter proposes the basic structure for immunoglobulin G Civil Rights March on Washington (1963) First quinolone antimicrobial (nalidixic acid) synthesized President Kennedy assassinated (1963) Arab-Israeli War (1967) Martin Luther King assassination (1968) Neil Armstrong walks on the moon (1969) 1970 Discovery of restriction endonucleases by Arber and Smith Discovery of reverse transcriptase in retroviruses by Temin and Baltimore 1973 Ames develops a bacterial assay for the detection of mutagens Salt I Treaty (1972) Cohen, Boyer, Chang, and Helling use plasmid vectors to clone Vietnam War ends (1973) genes in bacteria 1975 Kohler and Milstein develop technique for the production of President Nixon resigns because of Watergate cover-up (1974) monoclonal antibodies Lyme disease discovered 1977 Recognition of archaea as a distinct microbial group by Panama Canal Treaty (1977) Woese and Fox
Table 1.1 Continued Date Microbiological History Other Historical Events 1979 cine (h s to power (1991 Water found on themo() c8 r一 ek.Leeu he mi ng an ne the lens
Prescott−Harley−Klein: Microbiology, Fifth Edition I. Introduction to Microbiology 1. The History and Scope of Microbiology © The McGraw−Hill Companies, 2002 1.2 The Conflict over Spontaneous Generation 5 Table 1.1 Continued Date Microbiological History Other Historical Events Gilbert and Sanger develop techniques for DNA sequencing 1979 Insulin synthesized using recombinant DNA techniques Hostages seized in Iran (1978) Smallpox declared officially eliminated Three Mile Island disaster (1979) 1980 Development of the scanning tunneling microscope Home computers marketed (1980) 1982 Recombinant hepatitis B vaccine developed AIDS first recognized (1981) 1982–1983 Discovery of catalytic RNA by Cech and Altman First artificial heart implanted (1982) 1983–1984 The human immunodeficiency virus isolated and identified Meter redefined in terms of distance light travels (1983) by Gallo and Montagnier The polymerase chain reaction developed by Mullis 1986 First vaccine (hepatitis B vaccine) produced by genetic Gorbachev becomes Communist party general secretary (1985) engineering approved for human use Berlin Wall falls (1989) 1990 First human gene-therapy testing begun Persian Gulf War with Iraq begins (1990) Soviet Union collapse; Boris Yeltsin comes to power (1991) 1992 First human trials of antisense therapy 1995 Chickenpox vaccine approved for U.S. use Haemophilus influenzae genome sequenced 1996 Methanococcus jannaschii genome sequenced Water found on the moon (1998) Yeast genome sequenced 1997 Discovery of Thiomargarita namibiensis, the largest known bacterium Escherichia coli genome sequenced 2000 Discovery that Vibrio cholerae has two separate chromosomes Figure 1.1 Antony van Leeuwenhoek. Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) and his microscopes. (a) Leeuwenhoek holding a microscope. (b) A drawing of one of the microscopes showing the lens, a; mounting pin, b; and focusing screws, c and d. (c) Leeuwenhoek’s drawings of bacteria from the human mouth. (b) Source: C. E. Dobell, Antony van Leeuwenhoek and His Little Animals (1932), Russell and Russell, 1958. d d c c b b a a (a) (b) (c)