Principles ofFire BehaviorSECONDEDITIONJamesG.QuintiereCRCPressCRCTaylor&FrancisGroup
ContentsPrefaceXVAcknowledgments..xvii.xixAcronymsNomenclature.xxi1EvolutionofFireScienceLearningObjectives1.1Introduction.1.2What Is Fire?1.3Natural Causes ofFire1.3.1Lightning.1.3.2Earthquake1.3.3Meteors1.3.4Volcanoes1.3.58Underground Fires.1.4Fire and War1.5Fire in the United States and Abroad..101.5.110U.S.Statistics...1.5.2United States and theWorld131.5.313U.S.FirePrevention Infrastructure.1.5.415MotivationforImprovement..151.5.5FlammabilityTests1.5.6.17Cost of Fire1.620FireResearch201.6.1Disciplines ThatUnderlieFire1.6.220ComputerSimulations andPhysics1.6.321Brief HistoryofFire Science.1.723Visualizationof FirePhenomena.1.825Scientific Language251.8.1Units of Measure281.8.2Symbols1.8.3Scientific Notation.28291.9Summary30ReviewQuestions..30Activities31Referencesvii
vii Contents Preface.xv Acknowledgments . xvii Acronyms . xix Nomenclature . xxi 1. Evolution of Fire Science.1 Learning Objectives .1 1.1 Introduction .1 1.2 What Is Fire? .3 1.3 Natural Causes of Fire.4 1.3.1 Lightning.4 1.3.2 Earthquake.5 1.3.3 Meteors .7 1.3.4 Volcanoes .8 1.3.5 Underground Fires .8 1.4 Fire and War .9 1.5 Fire in the United States and Abroad. 10 1.5.1 U.S. Statistics. 10 1.5.2 United States and the World . 13 1.5.3 U.S. Fire Prevention Infrastructure . 13 1.5.4 Motivation for Improvement. 15 1.5.5 Flammability Tests . 15 1.5.6 Cost of Fire. 17 1.6 Fire Research.20 1.6.1 Disciplines That Underlie Fire .20 1.6.2 Computer Simulations and Physics .20 1.6.3 Brief History of Fire Science. 21 1.7 Visualization of Fire Phenomena.23 1.8 Scientific Language.25 1.8.1 Units of Measure.25 1.8.2 Symbols .28 1.8.3 Scientific Notation.28 1.9 Summary.29 Review Questions .30 Activities .30 References .31
viiiContents.332.CombustioninNaturalFires.33LearningObjectives.332.1Introduction.2.2..34Fire and Its Ingredients..2.2.1Typical TemperaturesandEnergyLevelsto.34Achieve Combustion....362.2.2Fuel Chemistry.2.2.3.36FireTriangleand Tetrahedron.2.2.437Combustion Timeand Extent..2.2.5Types of Fire....382.3.39Diffusion Flames...2.3.143CandleFlame..2.3.2.48AnatomyofaDiffusionFlame2.3.354TurbulentDiffusionFlames2.456PremixedFlames.2.4.157LaminarFlamePropagation2.4.259FlameTemperatures2.4.361TurbulentPropagationtoDetonation2.562Smoldering..2.6.64SpontaneousCombustion2.769Summary70ReviewQuestions.70True or False.....70Activities.71References733. Heat Transfer..73LearningObjectives3.1.73Introduction....3.274Definitions and Concepts3.3Forms ofHeat Transfer..77.783.3.1Conduction..783.3.1.1Steady3.3.1.2ThermalPenetrationTime803.3.2.81Convection...843.3.3Radiation..3.493HeatFluxasan IndicationofDamage.3.5.94HeatFluxDuetoSmokeinRoomFires.3.6.98HeatFluxfromFlames3.7Summary9999ReviewQuestions.100True or False..100Activities101References
viii Contents 2. Combustion in Natural Fires.33 Learning Objectives .33 2.1 Introduction .33 2.2 Fire and Its Ingredients .34 2.2.1 Typical Temperatures and Energy Levels to Achieve Combustion.34 2.2.2 Fuel Chemistry.36 2.2.3 Fire Triangle and Tetrahedron.36 2.2.4 Combustion Time and Extent . 37 2.2.5 Types of Fire.38 2.3 Diffusion Flames.39 2.3.1 Candle Flame.43 2.3.2 Anatomy of a Diffusion Flame .48 2.3.3 Turbulent Diffusion Flames .54 2.4 Premixed Flames.56 2.4.1 Laminar Flame Propagation .57 2.4.2 Flame Temperatures.59 2.4.3 Turbulent Propagation to Detonation. 61 2.5 Smoldering. 62 2.6 Spontaneous Combustion.64 2.7 Summary.69 Review Questions . 70 True or False. 70 Activities . 70 References .71 3. Heat Transfer.73 Learning Objectives .73 3.1 Introduction .73 3.2 Definitions and Concepts. 74 3.3 Forms of Heat Transfer.77 3.3.1 Conduction.78 3.3.1.1 Steady .78 3.3.1.2 Thermal Penetration Time .80 3.3.2 Convection . 81 3.3.3 Radiation.84 3.4 Heat Flux as an Indication of Damage.93 3.5 Heat Flux Due to Smoke in Room Fires.94 3.6 Heat Flux from Flames.98 3.7 Summary.99 Review Questions .99 True or False. 100 Activities . 100 References .101
ixContents1034.Ignition.103LearningObjectives4.1.103Introduction.4.2Piloted Ignition and Autoignition.1044.3.104Evaporation in Liquids4.4106Liquid Fuels.4.4.1PilotedIgnition..1074.4.2.108Autoignition4.5110Solid Fuels..4.5.1Ignitionof Wood asanExample1114.5.2112IgnitionTemperatureandCriticalHeatFlux.4.6114Time for Flaming Ignition ..4.7.116PredictingtheIgnitionTimeforSolidFuels1174.7.1Ignition ofThin Objects.1194.7.2Ignition of Thick Materials..4.8124SolidPropertiesforPilotedIgnition4.9.131Summary132ReviewQuestions...132TrueorFalse.133Activities133References1355.FlameSpread135LearningObjectives..5.1..135Introduction.5.2.136Definitions5.3138GeneralFlameSpreadTheory5.4140Spread onSolidSurfaces.1415.4.1Effect of Thickness.5.4.2DownwardorLateralWallSpreadona142ThickMaterial.5.4.3UpwardorWind-AidedSpread onaThickMaterial..1455.5147Spread throughPorous SolidArrays5.6151Spread on Liquids5.7155Spread through a Dwelling.5.8157Typical FireSpreadRates.5.9Standard Test Methods1575.10158CaseStudy:FireSpreadinaSchoolGymnasium1605.11Summary161ReviewQuestions..161True or False....162Activities162References
Contents ix 4. Ignition . 103 Learning Objectives . 103 4.1 Introduction . 103 4.2 Piloted Ignition and Autoignition . 104 4.3 Evaporation in Liquids. 104 4.4 Liquid Fuels . 106 4.4.1 Piloted Ignition. 107 4.4.2 Autoignition. 108 4.5 Solid Fuels . 110 4.5.1 Ignition of Wood as an Example. 111 4.5.2 Ignition Temperature and Critical Heat Flux . 112 4.6 Time for Flaming Ignition . 114 4.7 Predicting the Ignition Time for Solid Fuels. 116 4.7.1 Ignition of Thin Objects . 117 4.7.2 Ignition of Thick Materials. 119 4.8 Solid Properties for Piloted Ignition . 124 4.9 Summary. 131 Review Questions . 132 True or False. 132 Activities . 133 References .133 5. Flame Spread. 135 Learning Objectives . 135 5.1 Introduction . 135 5.2 Definitions. 136 5.3 General Flame Spread Theory . 138 5.4 Spread on Solid Surfaces. 140 5.4.1 Effect of Thickness. 141 5.4.2 Downward or Lateral Wall Spread on a Thick Material.142 5.4.3 Upward or Wind-Aided Spread on a Thick Material.145 5.5 Spread through Porous Solid Arrays . 147 5.6 Spread on Liquids . 151 5.7 Spread through a Dwelling . 155 5.8 Typical Fire Spread Rates. 157 5.9 Standard Test Methods . 157 5.10 Case Study: Fire Spread in a School Gymnasium. 158 5.11 Summary. 160 Review Questions . 161 True or False. 161 Activities . 162 References .162
Contentsx1656.Burning Rate.165Learning Objectives6.1.165Introduction.6.2Definitions and Theory.1656.2.1BurningMassFlux.1676.2.2.168Heat of Gasification, L (kJ/g)6.2.3..169ApproximateFormulaforSteadyBurning.1706.2.4ComputingtheMassBurningFlux1716.2.5Unsteady Burning...6.2.6DifficultiesinComputingBurningRates.1726.2.7Material PropertyValuesfor theHeat of Gasification... 1731736.3Estimating Burning Mass Flux...6.3.1ExampleforaBurningWall.1756.3.2.176Pool Fires.6.3.3178MaximumBurningRates6.4Energy Release Rate,Q..1801806.4.1Heatof Combustion,H6.4.2181HeatofCombustionofWood6.4.3.182HeatsofCombustionofMaterials..1826.4.4HeatReleaseParameter6.5184EstimatingEnergyReleaseRate6.6.187ExperimentalFirepower(HRR)ResultsforSelectedItems..6.7192FireGrowthRate.2016.7.1NFPADesignCategories.2036.7.2FireHRRof ItemConstructed2066.8Vehicle Fire Behavior.6.9.207Extinction6.10.209Summary..209ReviewQuestions.210True or False.210Activities211References2137.FirePlumes213LearningObjectives2137.1Introduction..7.2214BuoyancyandFluidDynamics7.3.218Turbulent Fire Plumes and Jets...7.4219Buoyant Plumes.7.5.221Flame Height..2227.5.1JetFlames.2247.5.2Pool FireFlames...2297.6FirePlumeTemperatures2307.6.1AnalysestoPredictthePlumeTemperature
x Contents 6. Burning Rate. 165 Learning Objectives . 165 6.1 Introduction . 165 6.2 Definitions and Theory. 165 6.2.1 Burning Mass Flux . 167 6.2.2 Heat of Gasification, L (kJ/g) . 168 6.2.3 Approximate Formula for Steady Burning . 169 6.2.4 Computing the Mass Burning Flux. 170 6.2.5 Unsteady Burning. 171 6.2.6 Difficulties in Computing Burning Rates . 172 6.2.7 Material Property Values for the Heat of Gasification . 173 6.3 Estimating Burning Mass Flux . 173 6.3.1 Example for a Burning Wall. 175 6.3.2 Pool Fires. 176 6.3.3 Maximum Burning Rates . 178 6.4 Energy Release Rate, Q . 180 6.4.1 Heat of Combustion, ΔHc . 180 6.4.2 Heat of Combustion of Wood. 181 6.4.3 Heats of Combustion of Materials. 182 6.4.4 Heat Release Parameter . 182 6.5 Estimating Energy Release Rate . 184 6.6 Experimental Firepower (HRR) Results for Selected Items. 187 6.7 Fire Growth Rate . 192 6.7.1 NFPA Design Categories . 201 6.7.2 Fire HRR of Item Constructed .203 6.8 Vehicle Fire Behavior.206 6.9 Extinction . 207 6.10 Summary.209 Review Questions .209 True or False. 210 Activities . 210 References . 211 7. Fire Plumes . 213 Learning Objectives . 213 7.1 Introduction . 213 7.2 Buoyancy and Fluid Dynamics. 214 7.3 Turbulent Fire Plumes and Jets . 218 7.4 Buoyant Plumes. 219 7.5 Flame Height . 221 7.5.1 Jet Flames .222 7.5.2 Pool Fire Flames . 224 7.6 Fire Plume Temperatures.229 7.6.1 Analyses to Predict the Plume Temperature .230