Principles of Fire BehaviorPrinciples olJamesG.QuintiereFire BehaviorPrinciples of Fire Behavioronty its hazards but alse its bunefitsALSOAVAILABLEFROMDELMARPUBLISHERS:KlinoffIntroducttiontoFire Protectior0-8273-7252-3BuckPreparing For Terrorism: An Emergency Services Guide0-8273-8397-5DiamantesFirePrevention:InspectionandCodeEnforcement0-8273-8412-2FormoreinformationabouttheseandotherDelmarFire/Rescuebooks,call 1-800-347-7707VISITDELMARPUBLISHERSTo.accessawide-wariefyofDeron the Worid Wide Web, pointFIRE/RESCUEWEBSITEIrourbrowertohttp:/www.cengage.com/delmatccess intematonarCengagePublishingyToacthanJamesGQuintierePointyourbrowsertoand20.000productsbrowsehttp://www.firesci.comDELMAR中NGAGELearninalmareboueDelorprefemedow9307,is_ocids1estanstn
To learn more about Delmar, visit www.cengage.com/delmar Purchase any of our products at your local bookstore or at our preferred online store www.cengagebrain.com © 2011 Delmar, Cengage Learning 0827377320_hires_cvr.indd 1 01/02/11 11:44 AM CENGAGE Learning· • comprehen Ive lTeatment glvu g sp of JI fil"9 behavlor9 • cientfflc approach yields lnalght to pin from experience alone • lmple formulas empower . fl,. , asseu damage. limelne of fire events • Introduction of quanut:811'1,e COt'iC 111 . ,.,. preci Ion to the users understanding of fire beh vlor • special section on combustion products and compartment fires help readers u.nderstand prfnclpl s of re behavior in specific sttuatlon ISBN-13: 978- -8273-7732-5 ISBN-10: -8273-7732- □ 9000 9 780827 377325
DELMARCENGAGE LearningPrinciples of Fire Behavior1998Delmar, Cengage LearningJames G.QuintiereALL RIGHTS RESERVED.No part of this work covered by the copyright herein maybe reproduced, transmitted, stored or used in any form or by any means graphic,Publisher: Alar Elkenelectronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying,recording,Acquistions Editor: Mark Huthscanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks,or informationDevelopmental Editor: Jeanne Mesickstorage and retrieval systems, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission ofProduction Coordinator: Toni Bologninothe publisher.Art and Design Coordinator: Michelle CanfieldEditorialAssistant:DawnDaughertyFor product information and technology assistance, contact us atMarketing Coordinator: Mona CaronCengage Learning Customer & Sales Support,1-800-354-9706For permission to use material from this text or productsubmitallrequestsonlineatwww.cengage.com/permissionsFurther permissions questions can be emailed topermissionrequest@cengage.comLibrary of Congress Control Number: 97-11199ISBN-13: 978-0-8273-7732-5ISBN-10: 0-8273-7732-0DelmarExecutive Woods5Maxwell DriveClifton Park, NY 12065USACengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with officelocations around the globe, including Singapore, the United Kingdom, Australia,Mexico, Brazil, and Japan. Locate your local office atwww.cengage.com/globalCengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd.To learn more about Delmar,visit www.cengage.com/delmarPurchaseanyofourproductsatyourlocalbookstoreoratourpreferredonlinestore www.cengagebrain.comNotice to the ReaderPublisher does not warrant.or guarantee any of the products described herein or perform any independent analysis in connection with any of the product information containedherein. Publisher does not assume, and expressly disclaims,any obligation to obtain and include information other than that provided to it by the manufacturer. The readeris expressly warned to consider and adoptallsafety precautions that might be indicated by the activities described herein and to avoid allpotential hazards.By following theinstructions contained herein, the reader willingly assumes all risks in connection with such instructions. The publisher makes no representations or warranties of any kind, includingbut not timited to, the warranties of fitness for particular purpose or merchantability,nor are any suchrepresentations implied with respect to the material set forth herein,and thepublishertakes no responsibility with respect to such material., The publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential,or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or part,fromthe readers useof,or reliance upon, this material.Printed in the United States of America15161718191514131211
© 1998 Delmar, Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Library of Congress Control Number: 97-11199 ISBN-13: 978-0-8273-7732-5 ISBN-10: 0-8273-7732-0 Delmar Executive Woods 5 Maxwell Drive Clifton Park, NY 12065 USA Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with offi ce locations around the globe, including Singapore, the United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico, Brazil, and Japan. Locate your local offi ce at www.cengage.com/global Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd. To learn more about Delmar, visit www.cengage.com/delmar Purchase any of our products at your local bookstore or at our preferred online store www.cengagebrain.com Principles of Fire Behavior James G. Quintiere Publisher: Alar Elken Acquistions Editor: Mark Huth Developmental Editor: Jeanne Mesick Production Coordinator: Toni Bolognino Art and Design Coordinator: Michelle Canfield Editorial Assistant: Dawn Daugherty Marketing Coordinator: Mona Caron Printed in the United States of America 15 16 17 18 19 15 14 13 12 11 For product information and technology assistance, contact us at Cengage Learning Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706 For permission to use material from this text or product, submit all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions Further permissions questions can be emailed to permissionrequest@cengage.com Notice to the Reader Publisher does not warrant or guarantee any of the products described herein or perform any independent analysis in connection with any of the product information contained herein. Publisher does not assume, and expressly disclaims, any obligation to obtain and include information other than that provided to it by the manufacturer. The reader is expressly warned to consider and adopt all safety precautions that might be indicated by the activities described herein and to avoid all potential hazards. By following the instructions contained herein, the reader willingly assumes all risks in connection with such instructions. The publisher makes no representations or warranties of any kind, including but not limited to, the warranties of fi tness for particular purpose or merchantability, nor are any such representations implied with respect to the material set forth herein, and the publisher takes no responsibility with respect to such material. The publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or part, from the readers’ use of, or reliance upon, this material. - 1~ DELMAR ~, . CENGAGE Learning·
ContentsixPrefacexiAcknowledgments1Chapter1TheEvolutionof FireScienceIntroduction/2What IsFire?/2Natural CausesofFire/3Fire intheUnitedStates/5FireResearch/12Visualizationof FirePhenomena/14ScientificNotation/15Summary/2123Chapter2Combustion in Natural FiresIntroduction/24Fireand Its Ingredients/24DiffusionFlames/25Smoldering/38SpontaneousCombustion/39品PremixedFlames/42Summary/4547Chapter3Heat TransferIntroduction/48 Definitionsand Concepts/48 FormsofHeatTransfer/49HeatFluxas anIndicationof Damage/60Summary/6365Chapter4IgnitionIntroduction/66 Piloted andAutoignition/66Ignition TimeforSolidFuels/69Summary/8083Chapter5FlameSpreadIntroduction/84Definitions/84Theory/85SpreadonSolidSurfaces/86SpreadthroughPorousSolidArrays/91Spread onLiquids/94Typical Fire SpreadRates/97StandardTestMethods/97Summary/99vii
contents Preface Acknowledgments Chapter 1 The Evolution of Fire Science Introduction/2 ■ What Is Fire?/2 ■ Natural Causes of Fire/3 ■ Fire in the United States/5 ■ Fire Research/12 ■ Visualization of Fire Phenomena/14 ■ Scientific Notation/15 ■ Summary/21 Chapter 2 combustion in Natural Fires Introduction/24 ■ Fire and Its Ingredients/24 ■ Diffusion Flames/25 ■ Smoldering/38 ■ Spontaneous Combustion/39 ■ Premixed Flames/42 ■ Summary/45 Chapter 3 Heat Transfer Introduction/48 ■ Definitions and Concepts/48 ■ Forms of Heat Transfer/49 ■ Heat Flux as an Indication ofDamage/60 ■ Summary/63 Chapter 4 Ignition Introduction/66 ■ Piloted and Autoignition/66 ■ Ignition Time for Solid Fuels/69 ■ Summary/BO Chapter 5 Flame Spread Introduction/84 ■ Definitions/84 ■ Theory/85 ■ Spread on Solid Surfaces/86 ■ Spread through Porous Solid Arrays/91 ■ Spread on Liquids/94 ■ Typical Fire Spread Rates/97 ■ Standard Test Methods/97 ■ Summary/99 vii ix Xi 1 23 47 65 83
viiiContents101Chapter6Burning RateIntroduction/102DefinitionandTheory/102MaximumBurningFlux/106EnergyReleaseRateQ/107ExperimentalResultsforSelectedItems/113FireGrowthRate/121Summary/126129Chapter7Fire PlumesIntroduction/130TurbulentFirePlumes/130FlameHeight/132FirePlumeTemperatures/139FlameHeightandTemperatureGalculations/142Summary/146149Chapter8CombustionProductsIntroduction/149ScopeofCombustionProducts/149Yields/152Concentrations/157Hazards/159Summary/167169Chapter9CompartmentFiresIntroduction/170 StagesofFireDevelopment/170Fire-InducedFlows/173CompartmentFlowDynamics/175SingleRoomFireAnalysis/185SmokeTemperature/185SmolderingFirein a ClosedSpace/190Summary/194197Chapter10FireAnalysisIntroduction/198FireSafetyDesign/198PerformanceCodes/200FireInvestigationExamples/203ComputerFireModels/221Summary/224227AppendixANumbered Equations230AppendixBReferenceTables250Acronyms251Glossary255Index
- ~-co_n_te_nts Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Burning Rate Introduction/102 ■ Definition and Theory/102 ■ Maximum Burning Flux/106 ■ Energy Release Rate, Q/107 ■ Experimental Results for Selected Items/113 ■ Fire Growth Rate/121 ■ Summary/126 Fire Plumes Introduction/13O ■ Turbulent Fire Plumes/13O ■ Flame Height/132 ■ Fire Plume Temperatures/139 ■ Flame Height and Temperature Calculations/142 ■ Summary/146 combustion Products Introduction/149 ■ Scope of Combustion Products/149 Yields/152 ■ Concentrations/157 ■ Hazards/159 ■ Summary/167 compartment Fires Introduction/17O ■ Stages of Fire Development/17O ■ FireInduced Flows/173 ■ Compartment Flow Dynamics/175 ■ Single Room Fire Analysis/185 ■ Smoke Temperature/185 ■ Smoldering Fire in a Closed Space/19O ■ Summary/194 Chapter 10 Fire Analysis Introduction/198 ■ Fire Safety Design/198 ■ Performance Codes/ZOO ■ Fire Investigation Examples/2O3 ■ Computer Fire Models/221 ■ Summary/224 Appendix A Numbered Equations Appendix B Reference Tables Acronyms Glossary Index 101 129 149 169 197 227 250 250 251 255
PrefaceThis book has been written for the practitioner in firethefirefighter,code official, or inves-tigator.A working knowledge of algebra is needed to effectively use the formulas presented.Acquired technical knowledge or course background in the sciences will behelpful.The textcontains material given to fire protection engineers, but not at the same depth of theory ordetail given in an engineering course. However, the conceptual explanations contained heremay benefit these more advanced students as well.The book arose from coursematerial prepared in conjunction with training sessions forthe Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (BATF) arson programs,Parts of it have alsobeen used ina BATF coursefor stateand local officials under the auspices of theFederal LawEnforcementTraining Center (FLETC).Ihave benefited greatly fromthis association byenrichingmy scope of real fire events and in appreciatingtheapplication of science to them.Rick Miller and Jackie Herndon of BATF encouraged me to meet the educational challenge ofthese programs, and Bill Petraitis (BATF) has helped to convince me of the benefits of fireanalysistoinvestigators.This book begins with a perspective on the fire problem,the background of research,and how the student needs to approach the study of fire.Visualization is important to displayconcepts, and mathematical symbols and scientific units need to be digested.Anoverviewoffireaddressesdiffusion flames,premixedflames,smoldering,andspontaneous combustion.Experiments with a candleflame are described to helpdefine someconcepts.Heat transfer,ignition,flame spread, and burning rate are discussed.Formulas are pre-sented to allow the student to examine and appreciate quantitative aspects of fire.Energyreleaserate (Q)inkilowatts (kW)is shown tobe an importantfireparameter.Later chapters explain thefire smokeplume,products of combustion,and how firebe-havesinaroom.Again,quantitativeformulasarepresented.The book closes with a discussion of the use of fire analysis to fire safety design and fireinvestigation.Examples are given, including a description of the Branch Davidian fire nearWaco,Texas (April, 19, 1993).Hopefullyby the final chapter the student will see how toapplythebookmaterialto his orherproblemscedreader.FirecanbeunexpectedlyinjuriousandAcautionarynotetotheinexdeadly.Asmallflanconds,andafireinahomecanbecomeCan.causdeadlyandinescapableinminutes.ussedandsuggestedforeducationHsosal purposes,ifconducted,need tobeinmentwhere attentionhasbeengiven toproper ventilation and control of combustibles.Extreme care should begiven in the use andhandlingof liquidfuelsix
P•et:ace This book has been written for the practitioner in fire-the firefighter, code official, or investigator. A working knowledge of algebra is needed to effectively use the formulas presented. Acquired technical knowledge or course background in the sciences will be helpful. The text contains material given to fire protection engineers, but not at the same depth of theory or detail given in an engineering course. However, the conceptual explanations contained here may benefit these more advanced students as well. The book arose from course material prepared in conjunction with training sessions for the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (BATF) arson programs. Parts of it have also been used in a BA TF course for state and local officials under the auspices of the Federal Law Enforcement Training Center (FLETC). I have benefited greatly from this association by enriching my scope of real fire events and in appreciating the application of science to them. Rick Miller and Jackie Herndon of BATF encouraged me to meet the educational challenge of these programs, and Bill Petraitis (BATF) has helped to convince me of the benefits of fire analysis to investigators. This book begins with a perspective on the fire problem, the background of research, and how the student needs to approach the study of fire. Visualization is important to display concepts, and mathematical symbols and scientific units need to be digested. An overview of fire addresses diffusion flames, premixed flames, smoldering, and spontaneous combustion. Experiments with a candle flame are described to help define some concepts. Heat transfer, ignition, flame spread, and burning rate are discussed. Formulas are presented to allow the student to examine and appreciate quantitative aspects of fire. Energy release rate (Q) in kilowatts (kW) is shown to be an important fire parameter. Later chapters explain the fire smoke plume, products of combustion, and how fire behaves in a room. Again, quantitative formulas are presented. The book closes with a discussion of the use of fire analysis to fire safety design and fire investigation. Examples are given, including a description of the Branch Davidian fire near Waco, Texas (April, 19, 1993). Hopefully by the final chapter the student will see how to apply the book material to his or her problems. A cautionary note to the inexperienced reader. Fire can be unexpectedly injurious and deadly. A small flame can cause a burn injury in seconds, and a fire in a home can become deadly and inescapable in minutes. The experiments discussed and suggested for education - al purposes, if conducted, need to be in an environment where attention has been given to proper ventilation and control of combustibles. Extreme care should be given in the use and handling of liquid fuels. ix