xiContents..2327.6.2FlameHeight andTemperatureCalculations.2347.6.3Nature of Turbulent FlameTemperature..2367.7FlameLengthsforOther Configurations..7.8237Whirls and Balls.7.9.239Summary239ReviewQuestions...240TrueorFalse..240Activities241References2438.CombustionProducts243LearningObjectives8.1243Introduction8.2244ScopeofCombustionProducts8.3Yields.2468.4.251Concentrations...8.5254Hazards2548.5.1NarcoticGases..2568.5.2AdditiveFractional IncapacitationDoses.2578.5.3IrritantGases8.5.4Smoke Visibility.2588.5.5261HeatEffects2638.6Summary263ReviewQuestions.264True or False..264Activities.265References2679.CompartmentFires267LearningObjectives9.1267Introduction9.2268StagesofFireDevelopment9.2.1269Developing Fire.9.2.2.270Flashover9.2.3FullyDeveloped2709.2.4.272Cooling Stage...9.2.5.272ExampleofMeasuredConditionsinRoomFire9.3273Fire-InducedFlows.2749.3.1DuctFanPressuresinFire9.3.2276Pressure Level Due to Fire...2769.4CompartmentFlowDynamics.2769.4.1Flowina Room.2799.4.2SmokeFillinginaLeakyCompartment
Contents xi 7.6.2 Flame Height and Temperature Calculations. 232 7.6.3 Nature of Turbulent Flame Temperature .234 7.7 Flame Lengths for Other Configurations.236 7.8 Whirls and Balls. 237 7.9 Summary. 239 Review Questions . 239 True or False. 240 Activities . 240 References . 241 8. Combustion Products . 243 Learning Objectives . 243 8.1 Introduction . 243 8.2 Scope of Combustion Products .244 8.3 Yields. 246 8.4 Concentrations. 251 8.5 Hazards .254 8.5.1 Narcotic Gases.254 8.5.2 Additive Fractional Incapacitation Doses .256 8.5.3 Irritant Gases . 257 8.5.4 Smoke Visibility .258 8.5.5 Heat Effects . 261 8.6 Summary.263 Review Questions .263 True or False.264 Activities .264 References .265 9. Compartment Fires. 267 Learning Objectives . 267 9.1 Introduction . 267 9.2 Stages of Fire Development .268 9.2.1 Developing Fire. 269 9.2.2 Flashover. 270 9.2.3 Fully Developed. 270 9.2.4 Cooling Stage.272 9.2.5 Example of Measured Conditions in Room Fire.272 9.3 Fire-Induced Flows . 273 9.3.1 Duct Fan Pressures in Fire. 274 9.3.2 Pressure Level Due to Fire. 276 9.4 Compartment Flow Dynamics. 276 9.4.1 Flow in a Room . 276 9.4.2 Smoke Filling in a Leaky Compartment . 279
xiiContents2819.4.3SmokeMovementinaBuilding.2829.4.3.1Corridors2849.4.3.2VerticalShafts9.5286SingleRoomFireAnalyses.9.5.1.287Smoke Filling.9.5.2288SmolderingFireinaClosedSpace9.5.3.291VentFlows.9.5.4295SmokeTemperature.2979.5.5Flashover..9.5.6298Ventilation-Limited Fires..9.5.7.300FullyDevelopedFire Size..9.5.7.1Model forFuel Generationina.302Compartment9.5.7.2FullyDevelopedCompartmentFire..303Behavior9.5.7.3.307Fuel LoadandBurningDuration9.6.308AnatomyofFireGrowth.3149.7Summary.315Review Questions...316True or False..316Activities317References.31910.Design,Investigation,and CaseStudies319LearningObjectives..31910.1Introduction...32010.2FireSafetvDesign32310.2.1Examples inDesign.10.2.1.1 Example1:EffectofShaftVents ina323Building Fire...10.2.1.2Example2:SmokeMovementintheWorld.325Trade Center,NewYork,NewYork.32710.2.2PerformanceCodes.32810.3FireInvestigation...32910.3.1DupontPlazaFire..33010.3.2Example3:TheCaseoftheLaundryBasketFire...10.3.3Example4:AnAnalysisof theWaldbaumFire,.332Brooklyn,NewYork(August3,1978)10.3.3.1EarlyDawn: Ignition (Approximately6a.m.)....33410.3.3.2 Smoldering Stage...33610.3.3.3Onset of Flaming:Shortlybefore8:30a.m....33710.3.3.4FireGrowthintheCockloft..33810.3.3.5CollapseoftheRoofduetoTrussMember.339Failure ~9:15 a.m.33910.3.3.6ConcludingRemarks
xii Contents 9.4.3 Smoke Movement in a Building. 281 9.4.3.1 Corridors. 282 9.4.3.2 Vertical Shafts .284 9.5 Single Room Fire Analyses.286 9.5.1 Smoke Filling. 287 9.5.2 Smoldering Fire in a Closed Space.288 9.5.3 Vent Flows. 291 9.5.4 Smoke Temperature. 295 9.5.5 Flashover. 297 9.5.6 Ventilation-Limited Fires. 298 9.5.7 Fully Developed Fire Size.300 9.5.7.1 Model for Fuel Generation in a Compartment .302 9.5.7.2 Fully Developed Compartment Fire Behavior.303 9.5.7.3 Fuel Load and Burning Duration .307 9.6 Anatomy of Fire Growth.308 9.7 Summary. 314 Review Questions . 315 True or False. 316 Activities . 316 References . 317 10. Design, Investigation, and Case Studies . 319 Learning Objectives . 319 10.1 Introduction . 319 10.2 Fire Safety Design. 320 10.2.1 Examples in Design. 323 10.2.1.1 Example 1: Effect of Shaft Vents in a Building Fire . 323 10.2.1.2 Example 2: Smoke Movement in the World Trade Center, New York, New York. 325 10.2.2 Performance Codes. 327 10.3 Fire Investigation. 328 10.3.1 Dupont Plaza Fire . 329 10.3.2 Example 3: The Case of the Laundry Basket Fire.330 10.3.3 Example 4: An Analysis of the Waldbaum Fire, Brooklyn, New York (August 3, 1978) . 332 10.3.3.1 Early Dawn: Ignition (Approximately 6 a.m.). 334 10.3.3.2 Smoldering Stage.336 10.3.3.3 Onset of Flaming: Shortly before 8:30 a.m. 337 10.3.3.4 Fire Growth in the Cockloft.338 10.3.3.5 Collapse of the Roof due to Truss Member Failure ~ 9:15 a.m.339 10.3.3.6 Concluding Remarks . 339
xiiiContents10.3.4Example5:TheBranchDavidianFirenearWaco340Texas (April 19, 1993)10.3.4.1CongressionalCommitteeStatementontheMountCarmelBranchDavidianFire342(April 19, 1995)..35110.3.4.2Follow-UptoWaco10.3.4.3ScientificAnalysesofSomeAspectsof the.351Waco Fire.35410.3.5Patterns..35510.3.5.1 SootPatterns..35610.3.5.2CleanBurnPattern..35710.3.5.3TheHandsof TimeinaFire.35710.3.5.4GasolineversusFireDamage.35910.3.6WorldTradeCenterTerrorismandFire(9/11).36010.3.6.1 InvestigativeEfforts36210.3.6.2RoleoftheJetFuel..36210.3.6.3Fuel Load for theFire..36310.3.6.4FireEffectontheStructure.36510.3.6.5AfterthoughtsonWTC.36610.4ComputerFireModels..36610.4.1ZoneModels10.4.2Field Models.36910.5370Summary.371ReviewQuestions.371Activities.372References..375Appendix:MathematicsofScience.397Glossary.405Index
Contents xiii 10.3.4 Example 5: The Branch Davidian Fire near Waco, Texas (April 19, 1993).340 10.3.4.1 Congressional Committee Statement on the Mount Carmel Branch Davidian Fire (April 19, 1995).342 10.3.4.2 Follow-Up to Waco. 351 10.3.4.3 Scientific Analyses of Some Aspects of the Waco Fire . 351 10.3.5 Patterns.354 10.3.5.1 Soot Patterns .355 10.3.5.2 Clean Burn Pattern.356 10.3.5.3 The Hands of Time in a Fire . 357 10.3.5.4 Gasoline versus Fire Damage. 357 10.3.6 World Trade Center Terrorism and Fire (9/11). 359 10.3.6.1 Investigative Efforts .360 10.3.6.2 Role of the Jet Fuel. 362 10.3.6.3 Fuel Load for the Fire. 362 10.3.6.4 Fire Effect on the Structure.363 10.3.6.5 Afterthoughts on WTC.365 10.4 Computer Fire Models.366 10.4.1 Zone Models .366 10.4.2 Field Models . 369 10.5 Summary. 370 Review Questions . 371 Activities . 371 References . 372 Appendix: Mathematics of Science. 375 Glossary. 397 Index .405
Taylor&FrancisTaylor&Francis Grouphttp:/taylorandfrancis.com
PrefaceThe genesis of this book is early short courses given to fire investigators ofthe Bureau of Alcohol,Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) starting in1992 at the University of Maryland, College Park.The material grew intoa book byDelmar Publishers in1997 within their series on fireand rescuebooks.Thebook received wideusageamong institutions for theeducationoffirefighters intheUnited States.Internationally,thatusecontinued withaKorean translation in2004and a Japanese translation in 2009.Thebook wasmaintained as the basis in fire investigation training courses offered by theATFforbothfederalandstateinvestigators.In early2012,a new edition was submitted to Cengage (formerly Delmar),and itreceived positivereviews.Unfortunately,in July of that year,financialmatters caused Cengage to terminate their fire series and this book.Now outofprint, thebooklanguished until 2015 whenafresh revisionwaspreparedforTaylor&FrancisGroup/CRCPress.Thenewedition aimsto improvetheintroductionof scienceandmathtothe student. An Appendix has been added to introduce or review principlesof algebra and to explain the need for mathematics in science.The book hasbeen significantlyexpanded with newinformation and improved explana-tions.Moreexamples arepresented in eachchapterwithmanyrelatedtoreal-world incidents. New figures and graphical results have been added,and the use of color in some should bea significantenhancement.The student will gain knowledge of fire behavior through scientific prin-ciples and will achieve the means tomake quantitativeestimatesforaspectsof fire.The book is intended for those with a secondary education and is not afundamental bookfor scientists and engineers.Introductionsto the subjectsof combustion,chemistry,heattransfer,and fluidmechanicswill allowthestudent to learn what constitutes fire and its effects. The style of presenta-tionistooffersimpleexplanationsforcomponentfireprocessesandtodem-onstratethe use of formulas to make estimations.Theformulas arebasedon sounddevelopmentsfromfireresearchand canbetestedpotentiallyinclassroomorfielddemonstrations.Carefullyplannedexperimentscanmakemuch of thematerial in this book resonate with the students.The book covers all aspects of fire behavior.Fire is combustion,and the stu-dentis introduced topremixed flames,thebasisofignition and explosions,diffusionflamesthatpersonifyaccidentalfire,and smoldering,which slowsdown potentially deadlyprocess.Therudiments of heat transfer are intro-ducedwithsimplepresentationsfor conduction,convection,and radiation.The concept of heat flux is introduced as that effect of fire that causes harm,damage,and ignition.Buoyantfluid flow causedbyfireis explained intermsof the chimney and then related to flows in rooms and buildings.FiregrowthX
xv Preface The genesis of this book is early short courses given to fire investigators of the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) starting in 1992 at the University of Maryland, College Park. The material grew into a book by Delmar Publishers in 1997 within their series on fire and rescue books. The book received wide usage among institutions for the education of firefighters in the United States. Internationally, that use continued with a Korean translation in 2004 and a Japanese translation in 2009. The book was maintained as the basis in fire investigation training courses offered by the ATF for both federal and state investigators. In early 2012, a new edition was submitted to Cengage (formerly Delmar), and it received positive reviews. Unfortunately, in July of that year, financial matters caused Cengage to terminate their fire series and this book. Now out of print, the book languished until 2015 when a fresh revision was prepared for Taylor & Francis Group/CRC Press. The new edition aims to improve the introduction of science and math to the student. An Appendix has been added to introduce or review principles of algebra and to explain the need for mathematics in science. The book has been significantly expanded with new information and improved explanations. More examples are presented in each chapter with many related to real-world incidents. New figures and graphical results have been added, and the use of color in some should be a significant enhancement. The student will gain knowledge of fire behavior through scientific principles and will achieve the means to make quantitative estimates for aspects of fire. The book is intended for those with a secondary education and is not a fundamental book for scientists and engineers. Introductions to the subjects of combustion, chemistry, heat transfer, and fluid mechanics will allow the student to learn what constitutes fire and its effects. The style of presentation is to offer simple explanations for component fire processes and to demonstrate the use of formulas to make estimations. The formulas are based on sound developments from fire research and can be tested potentially in classroom or field demonstrations. Carefully planned experiments can make much of the material in this book resonate with the students. The book covers all aspects of fire behavior. Fire is combustion, and the student is introduced to premixed flames, the basis of ignition and explosions, diffusion flames that personify accidental fire, and smoldering, which slows down potentially deadly process. The rudiments of heat transfer are introduced with simple presentations for conduction, convection, and radiation. The concept of heat flux is introduced as that effect of fire that causes harm, damage, and ignition. Buoyant fluid flow caused by fire is explained in terms of the chimney and then related to flows in rooms and buildings. Fire growth