1-INTRODUCTION in this larger sense that other disciplines borrow the term architecture.Invari- ably,architecture denotes a system of organization,of order. When it engages with the physical world,we say that architecture organizes environment toward a purpose.By environment,we mean the tangible,four- dimensional world that surrounds us and through which our bodies play their part.In this more tangible definition,architecture is how we make sense of the world by establishing our place within it.When we rest beneath a solitary tree in a large field,our relative spatial proximity-what Simon Unwin calls 'circles of presence'-help us make sense of our environment,whether we are conscious of doing so or not. In this same sense,architecture can also involve the physical arrangement of environment.It is this re-ordering of the physical world that we may define further,in terms of MEASURE and MATTER.Measure comprises the dimen- sional attributes of form and space.Matter is the'stuff'of the world,its mate- rials and their intrinsic properties.Form is subject to the presence of visible matter,while space is contingent upon its absence. The diagram,as an agent of analysis,serves to make sense of the physical environment by revealing or proposing its underlying conceptual organization. As such,a diagram may not only act to represent architecture,it constitutes architecture in the sense that it demonstrates or embodies an intellectual structuring. The proof of architecture resides in its diagram. Organization,order,composition If in fact architecture is organization toward a purpose,how do we define organization?We begin to answer this by asking another question.What it is that we do when we design?In large part,design thinking constitutes gen- erating,then evaluating,choices.The number of individual decisions that an architect makes during the design and construction of a building can easily number in the tens of thousands.Decisions made in one small part of a proj- ect will inevitably affect cascades of inter-dependent conditions.Design think ing becomes further complicated as we factor in the competing agendas of cli- ents,contractors,and building codes.The entire enterprise may seem to risk going off the rails by virtue of its intrinsic increasing complexities Fortunately,help is at hand.Design thinking distinguishes architecture Figure s:Diagrammatic images such as this one help the designer visualize from haphazard,indiscriminate choice by way of ANALYSIS.An analytic struc- the implied motion-the grain-within an architectural scheme. ture helps to guide those myriad decisions by conceptually organizing them, allowing them to coalesce,and culminate in the creation of architecture.In turn,the agency of the diagram helps conduct analysis.Formulating diagrams provides the method by which architects analyze and organize priorities. In a simple narrative,one might imagine a client who required a sleeping space,a living space and a kitchen,with a stipulation for two differentiated entrances and a minimal use of space.Sorting that simple list might conceiv- Figure 6:Figure-ground diagrams such as the three simple courtyard schemes on the left can make initial form strategies for a design vivid to the designer.They help order compositional thinking as to overall spatial intent. 3
– Figure 5: Diagrammatic images such as this one help the designer visualize the implied motion – the grain – within an architectural scheme. Figure 6: Figure-ground diagrams such as the three simple courtyard schemes on the left can make initial form strategies for a design vivid to the designer. They help order compositional thinking as to overall spatial intent. in this larger sense that other disciplines borrow the term architecture. Invariably, architecture denotes a system of organization, of order. When it engages with the physical world, we say that architecture organizes environment toward a purpose. By environment, we mean the tangible, fourdimensional world that surrounds us and through which our bodies play their part. In this more tangible definition, architecture is how we make sense of the world by establishing our place within it. When we rest beneath a solitary tree in a large field, our relative spatial proximity – what Simon Unwin calls ‘circles of presence’ – help us make sense of our environment, whether we are conscious of doing so or not. In this same sense, architecture can also involve the physical arrangement of environment. It is this re-ordering of the physical world that we may define further, in terms of and . Measure comprises the dimensional attributes of form and space. Matter is the ‘stuff’ of the world, its materials and their intrinsic properties. Form is subject to the presence of visible matter, while space is contingent upon its absence. e diagram, as an agent of analysis, serves to make sense of the physical environment by revealing or proposing its underlying conceptual organization. As such, a diagram may not only act to represent architecture, it constitutes architecture in the sense that it demonstrates or embodies an intellectual structuring. e proof of architecture resides in its diagram. Organization, order, composition If in fact architecture is organization toward a purpose, how do we define organization? We begin to answer this by asking another question. What it is that we do when we design? In large part, design thinking constitutes generating, then evaluating, choices. e number of individual decisions that an architect makes during the design and construction of a building can easily number in the tens of thousands. Decisions made in one small part of a project will inevitably affect cascades of inter-dependent conditions. Design thinking becomes further complicated as we factor in the competing agendas of clients, contractors, and building codes. e entire enterprise may seem to risk going off the rails by virtue of its intrinsic increasing complexities. Fortunately, help is at hand. Design thinking distinguishes architecture from haphazard, indiscriminate choice by way of . An analytic structure helps to guide those myriad decisions by conceptually organizing them, allowing them to coalesce, and culminate in the creation of architecture. In turn, the agency of the diagram helps conduct analysis. Formulating diagrams provides the method by which architects analyze and organize priorities. In a simple narrative, one might imagine a client who required a sleeping space, a living space and a kitchen, with a stipulation for two differentiated entrances and a minimal use of space. Sorting that simple list might conceiv-
UTILITY,FUNCTION,PURPOSE ably involve a bubble diagram,a spatial diagram,a flow diagram and others, to generate and evaluate options.Common uses also include determining and refining interactive functions prior to determining form.It starts with ORDER -the hierarchical heart of organization.Order in architecture is a FORMAL idea. Order begets CoMPOSITION,and composition organizes both form and space. The how or why of any particular organization or formal composition is the idea,literally the picture,that drives both the architecture and our judgment of it.This is what we call the BIG IDEA.There are other possible names for it.'In all cases,we recognize that form and purpose can be intertwined con- BY ANY OTHER NAME ceptually.Louis Sullivan coined the phrase'form ever follows function.'The By tradition in the ECOLE DES BEAUX-ARTS,the PARTI term applies to a building when that building's order facilitates human objec- identifies the Big Idea,assumed to derive from the tives.Order refers to,or directs,the form and space of a building by way of French prendre parti,literally 'to make a decision.' composition. Other critics suggest the term'commanding form' as a description of the visible expression of the Big Utility,function,purpose Idea.Both refer to the principal organizing aspect of As architecture manifests organization toward a purpose,how might we an architect's design presented in the form of a basic define PURPOSE in architecture?First,purpose is a statement of ends.It diagram or statement of intent. reflects our sense of final state or goals.For educated Greeks,the ultimate goal was to understand and live a good life.The debate was about what was good.Modern secular architecture re-embraces this moral imperative.In either instance,we recognize that purpose makes clarity an essential part of the good,particularly good form.The further extension into the civic and moral realms is beyond the concern of beginning design. Toward the end of the first century BCE,the Roman architect Vitruvius defined the discipline of architecture as combining firmitas,utilitas and venus- tas-stability,utility and beauty.Ever since,the notion of utility in architec- ture has been contested:it is either the essential premise for architecture,or as its proverbial fly-in-the-ointment.The question of usefulness in architec- ture provokes another-use to what end?Or,to quote another Roman,cui bono?To whose benefit?Along with beauty,venustas,utility is in the eye of the beholder. Purpose allows us to avoid linking problematic associations with function, thus disabusing students of the notion that architecture is necessarily utili- tarian.Purpose implies using with meaning.It denotes resolution,determi- nation,intent.It primarily requires clarity of form and composition.Clarity defines the Big Idea. Measure,matter,method We have defined measure and matter as composing the physical environment, where measure comprises form and space,and matter constitutes the 'stuff' of the world.As we suggest above,order and composition shape the elements of measure.Matter,having form,follows suit.At the same time,the physical properties of matter impose their own will upon measure.Within this matrix of reciprocities,we begin to grasp the inherent complexity of design thinking, while we marvel anew at the richness of architecture. In addition to being subject to order and composition,matter's physical properties must satisfy an additional pair of covalent criteria,what we might categorize as the performative and the palpable.The performance of any given material allows it to fulfill two fundamental roles in architecture-as structure and as skin.As structure,a material's strength is brought to bear in a number of ways:its resistance to being pushed and pulled-compression and tension-and its ability to withstand bending and breaking,its moment
* By tradition in the -, the identifies the Big Idea, assumed to derive from the French prendre parti, literally ‘to make a decision.’ Other critics suggest the term ‘commanding form’ as a description of the visible expression of the Big Idea. Both refer to the principal organizing aspect of an architect’s design presented in the form of a basic diagram or statement of intent. ably involve a bubble diagram, a spatial diagram, a flow diagram and others, to generate and evaluate options. Common uses also include determining and refining interactive functions prior to determining form. It starts with – the hierarchical heart of organization. Order in architecture is a idea. Order begets , and composition organizes both form and space. e how or why of any particular organization or formal composition is the idea, literally the picture, that drives both the architecture and our judgment of it. is is what we call the . ere are other possible names for it.* In all cases, we recognize that form and purpose can be intertwined conceptually. Louis Sullivan coined the phrase ‘form ever follows function.’ e term applies to a building when that building’s order facilitates human objectives. Order refers to, or directs, the form and space of a building by way of composition. Utility, function, purpose As architecture manifests organization toward a purpose, how might we define in architecture? First, purpose is a statement of ends. It reflects our sense of final state or goals. For educated Greeks, the ultimate goal was to understand and live a good life. e debate was about what was good. Modern secular architecture re-embraces this moral imperative. In either instance, we recognize that purpose makes clarity an essential part of the good, particularly good form. e further extension into the civic and moral realms is beyond the concern of beginning design. Toward the end of the first century , the Roman architect Vitruvius defined the discipline of architecture as combining firmitas, utilitas and venustas – stability, utility and beauty. Ever since, the notion of utility in architecture has been contested: it is either the essential premise for architecture, or as its proverbial fly-in-the-ointment. e question of usefulness in architecture provokes another – use to what end? Or, to quote another Roman, cui bono? To whose benefit? Along with beauty, venustas, utility is in the eye of the beholder. Purpose allows us to avoid linking problematic associations with function, thus disabusing students of the notion that architecture is necessarily utilitarian. Purpose implies using with meaning. It denotes resolution, determination, intent. It primarily requires clarity of form and composition. Clarity defines the Big Idea. Measure, matter, method We have defined measure and matter as composing the physical environment, where measure comprises form and space, and matter constitutes the ‘stuff’ of the world. As we suggest above, order and composition shape the elements of measure. Matter, having form, follows suit. At the same time, the physical properties of matter impose their own will upon measure. Within this matrix of reciprocities, we begin to grasp the inherent complexity of design thinking, while we marvel anew at the richness of architecture. In addition to being subject to order and composition, matter’s physical properties must satisfy an additional pair of covalent criteria, what we might categorize as the performative and the palpable. e performance of any given material allows it to fulfill two fundamental roles in architecture – as structure and as skin. As structure, a material’s strength is brought to bear in a number of ways: its resistance to being pushed and pulled – compression and tension – and its ability to withstand bending and breaking, its moment , ,
1-INTRODUCTION and shear.Use as skin reveals a material's ability to cover and protect its color and translucence,its malleability and permeability.The palpable qualities of a material appeal to our senses:the fragrant folds of full-grain leather,the soothing chill of polished stone,the scintillating perfection of chromed steel, and the mottled patina of hand-hewn timber,worn smooth with age. Design method Architecture is also complex in the sense that it composes many parts.These may include the studs,shingle,and sheathing of a simple shed.They might comprise the mechanical,electrical and life-safety systems of an office tower. At every scale,designers select and arrange materials that fulfill the myriad components required of a building.What we call construction is the ordered assembly of these parts;their selection and arrangement form part of the broader process of design thinking. On any given project,designers face innumerable individual decisions. Methodology,having a method of thinking,assists the designer in making choices.It may be possible to act without thought or deliberation,but it is not desirable.It may also be possible to make choices in a vacuum,as if no one had ever made a building before.However,a real architect begins by sorting through the methods of her discipline.She chooses strategies and tactics by virtue of method and in response to goals. Any architect practicing for a length of time acquires an arsenal of design thinking and sequences of design development-a transparent method and a pattern of thought.The sum of her design thinking comprises a diagrammatic overlap to her method.This is not a means for architects to copy or repeat themselves blindly.In the best of cases,it allows the architect to analyze the connecting ideas across the range of her portfolio. This idea of the portfolio,with its roots in the Ecole des Beaux-Arts,still has relevance,particularly for the beginning student.It organizes projects across scales and aids in developing an approach to design and architecture. Its features should include:theme and variation,evolution from the simple to the complex,a process of aggregation and a sense of purposeful choice,a methodology. Method methodology Figure 7:This drawing illustrates three sections of a simple endosure as Method leads from basic root insights about any practice.A design methodol- intersecting planes.Schematic axonometric diagrams such as these help the beginning designer visualize the relationship between orthographic ogy is,therefore,a description of the basic insights and procedures of design representations and the formal structuring of form in space. thinking.It proposes and uses particular sets of cause-and-effect as essential concerns regarding design. Along the way,a methodology develops and articulates a framework or theory,for going about something particular-in this case,design-in pur- suit of a goal for the practice.In general,we can describe the collective goals as STRATEGIES-actions focused on an overall objective-and the individual actions as TACTIcs-actions limited to a specific procedure. The specific methodology underlying the principles outlined in this book proceeds from a basic observation about architectural design:with architec- ture,form and space are distinct and separate facets of the same object.The relationship between form and space is,therefore,open to analysis and inter- pretation.Appreciating or resolving the dynamics of that relationship,as well as describing it,is analytic,imaginative and problematic.This,in turn,gener- ates a method,a guiding speculation and set of criteria for judgment.In this 5 www.ebook3000.com
– and shear. Use as skin reveals a material’s ability to cover and protect its color and translucence, its malleability and permeability. e palpable qualities of a material appeal to our senses: the fragrant folds of full-grain leather, the soothing chill of polished stone, the scintillating perfection of chromed steel, and the mottled patina of hand-hewn timber, worn smooth with age. Design & method Architecture is also complex in the sense that it composes many parts. ese may include the studs, shingle, and sheathing of a simple shed. ey might comprise the mechanical, electrical and life-safety systems of an office tower. At every scale, designers select and arrange materials that fulfill the myriad components required of a building. What we call construction is the ordered assembly of these parts; their selection and arrangement form part of the broader process of design thinking. On any given project, designers face innumerable individual decisions. Methodology, having a method of thinking, assists the designer in making choices. It may be possible to act without thought or deliberation, but it is not desirable. It may also be possible to make choices in a vacuum, as if no one had ever made a building before. However, a real architect begins by sorting through the methods of her discipline. She chooses strategies and tactics by virtue of method and in response to goals. Any architect practicing for a length of time acquires an arsenal of design thinking and sequences of design development – a transparent method and a pattern of thought. e sum of her design thinking comprises a diagrammatic overlap to her method. is is not a means for architects to copy or repeat themselves blindly. In the best of cases, it allows the architect to analyze the connecting ideas across the range of her portfolio. is idea of the portfolio, with its roots in the École des Beaux-Arts, still has relevance, particularly for the beginning student. It organizes projects across scales and aids in developing an approach to design and architecture. Its features should include: theme and variation, evolution from the simple to the complex, a process of aggregation and a sense of purposeful choice, a methodology. Method & methodology Method leads from basic root insights about any practice. A design methodology is, therefore, a description of the basic insights and procedures of design thinking. It proposes and uses particular sets of cause-and-effect as essential concerns regarding design. Along the way, a methodology develops and articulates a framework or theory, for going about something particular – in this case, design – in pursuit of a goal for the practice. In general, we can describe the collective goals as – actions focused on an overall objective – and the individual actions as – actions limited to a specific procedure. e specific methodology underlying the principles outlined in this book proceeds from a basic observation about architectural design: with architecture, form and space are distinct and separate facets of the same object. e relationship between form and space is, therefore, open to analysis and interpretation. Appreciating or resolving the dynamics of that relationship, as well as describing it, is analytic, imaginative and problematic. is, in turn, generates a method, a guiding speculation and set of criteria for judgment. In this Figure 7: This drawing illustrates three sections of a simple enclosure as intersecting planes. Schematic axonometric diagrams such as these help the beginning designer visualize the relationship between orthographic representations and the formal structuring of form in space. www.ebook3000.com
HOW THIS BOOK WORKS way,design thinking defines a process of analysis,visualizing possibilities and a path towards judging the potential result. Our method and approach toward a methodology also addresses the obser- vation that while form is a composite whole,a composition,the possibilities of space within any form is both aggregate and multi-stable.Form,while open to interpretation,exists as finite objects occupying defined space or a deter- mined set of spaces within its composition.In contrast,the aggregate of space includes defined and implied-negotiable and multivalent-occupations within the form.Form is corporeal and solid even if it is movable or malleable. Space is correspondingly ethereal and fluid.Consequently,or in response to these observations,one goal of architectural design is to be clear about how form brings order and clarity to the mutability of space. Visualizing the complexity of space and form begins the process of mak- ing clear sense of distinct and relevant qualities of both.In addition,when approached systematically,the cumulative tools for description begin to form a basis for future observations and judgments.They start to build a method. Figure 8:Two figures positioned on a ground plane shown with connecting This process of making a system of thought about design clarifies both analy- field and bounding lines,as discussed in CHAPTER 4. sis and judgment.It empowers the designer to make better decisions.It builds an arsenal. How this book works There are a number of ways to build an arsenal,just as there are a number of ways to learn any discipline that embodies both thought and practice.Giving form to an introductory sequence inevitably reflects certain preferences.It gives privilege to one idea over another by virtue of the order of presentation and its abstraction from the fuller practice. We began this introduction with a working definition of architecture,our description of the diagram,the Big Idea and design thinking.These ideas underwrite our teaching of beginning design.In addition,the results of that teaching,its method and content illustrate our overall thesis. In the following chapters,we proceed through a series of examples,descrip- tions and demonstrations to illustrate this beginning.Though the examples aspire to arrive at general conclusions,they are not a formula for design. Instead,we use them to make fundamental design concepts clearer. Figure Model of the group composition in its mid-stage of development The examples illustrate five groups or theme sets.Each group addresses as explored in CHAPTER 5. the same basic formal learning goal:observing and analyzing design to better understand design method.The overall prejudice in this text appears with the first theme:we represent analyzing architecture as engaging the fundamental language of GESTALT.This does not align our ideas with either the phenom- enological or formalist commentaries prevalent today.Gestalt instead simply offers the clearest language for describing form and formal perception. Beginning from the notion that drawing is a route to visualizing design,our first theme set,starting in the following chapter,introduces the idea of dia- gramming that underwrites our theme sets.From there,we add a brief dis- course on order that leads to the three project groups that organize the rest of the book The procedure that occupies CHAPTER 4 takes the reader through an elemen- tary project premised on basic visual judgment of figures within a GROUND. It also introduces complementary methods of analyzing figures and fields and differentiating between form and space(8).The chapter also introduces important formal vocabulary for diagramming positive and negative space in plan. Figure:The final model of the samegroupasdescribedin CHAPTER 6. 6
way, design thinking defines a process of analysis, visualizing possibilities and a path towards judging the potential result. Our method and approach toward a methodology also addresses the observation that while form is a composite whole, a composition, the possibilities of space within any form is both aggregate and multi-stable. Form, while open to interpretation, exists as finite objects occupying defined space or a determined set of spaces within its composition. In contrast, the aggregate of space includes defined and implied – negotiable and multivalent – occupations within the form. Form is corporeal and solid even if it is movable or malleable. Space is correspondingly ethereal and fluid. Consequently, or in response to these observations, one goal of architectural design is to be clear about how form brings order and clarity to the mutability of space. Visualizing the complexity of space and form begins the process of making clear sense of distinct and relevant qualities of both. In addition, when approached systematically, the cumulative tools for description begin to form a basis for future observations and judgments. ey start to build a method. is process of making a system of thought about design clarifies both analysis and judgment. It empowers the designer to make better decisions. It builds an arsenal. How this book works ere are a number of ways to build an arsenal, just as there are a number of ways to learn any discipline that embodies both thought and practice. Giving form to an introductory sequence inevitably reflects certain preferences. It gives privilege to one idea over another by virtue of the order of presentation and its abstraction from the fuller practice. We began this introduction with a working definition of architecture, our description of the diagram, the Big Idea and design thinking. ese ideas underwrite our teaching of beginning design. In addition, the results of that teaching, its method and content illustrate our overall thesis. In the following chapters, we proceed through a series of examples, descriptions and demonstrations to illustrate this beginning. ough the examples aspire to arrive at general conclusions, they are not a formula for design. Instead, we use them to make fundamental design concepts clearer. e examples illustrate five groups or theme sets. Each group addresses the same basic formal learning goal: observing and analyzing design to better understand design method. e overall prejudice in this text appears with the first theme: we represent analyzing architecture as engaging the fundamental language of . is does not align our ideas with either the phenomenological or formalist commentaries prevalent today. Gestalt instead simply offers the clearest language for describing form and formal perception. Beginning from the notion that drawing is a route to visualizing design, our first theme set, starting in the following chapter, introduces the idea of diagramming that underwrites our theme sets. From there, we add a brief discourse on order that leads to the three project groups that organize the rest of the book e procedure that occupies takes the reader through an elementary project premised on basic visual judgment of figures within a . It also introduces complementary methods of analyzing figures and fields and differentiating between form and space (). e chapter also introduces important formal vocabulary for diagramming positive and negative space in plan. Figure 8: Two gures positioned on a ground plane shown with connecting eld and bounding lines, as discussed in CHAPTER 4. Figure 9: Model of the group composition in its mid-stage of development as explored in CHAPTER 5. Figure 10: The nal model of the same group composition as described in CHAPTER 6
1-INTRODUCTION Building on that sequence,the second procedure group moves toward a greater complexity of figure and ground,and treats the evolution of three- dimensional spatial objects on that basis.Adding to the previous discussion of diagrammatic analysis,CHAPTER 5 extends the method to more deliber- ate engagement with figures that represent enclosed space.In addition,the project articulates the ground as composed of multiple fields.The model also develops into a three-dimensional reality (9). Moving on to CHAPTER 6,the complexity of the model-figures and fields grows in response to further refinement through analytical drawings(10). Each of these steps reflects both descriptive illustration and diagrammatic analysis.The concluding model and drawings of this thematic group depict a robust expression of architectural order among forms and across space,set- ting the stage for the procedures that follow. The third procedural theme-featured in CHAPTER7-adds to the mix of ideas of order explicit notions of physical matter.The use and examination of three-dimensional models moves to the fore both as a subject of analysis and as a means of exploring the difference between structural form and envelope. Figure:This analytic plan for the model below is part of a set of drawings In the process,we discover and discuss other forms of internal measure and exploring formal tectonic expression-CHAPTER 7. proportion.By building on the method established earlier,this thematic set balances the role of drawing and three-dimensional modeling as both repre- sentation and analysis (11-12). Throughout the first three procedures,the text provides a developing nar- rative concerning the relationship between two-dimensional expressions of form and three-dimensional representations.In the final group,the discus- sion focuses on two sets of precedent analysis-CHAPTERS 8 and 9. Two roles for precedents Systems of order embedded within works of design are not readily evident to the novice student.To nurture this,we engage beginning designers in the close visual analysis of exemplary building projects-what architects refer to as PRECEDENTS.Asking our students to diagram precedents has proven to be highly effective in enabling them to discover how patterns of order are intrin- sic to the design process. In the book,we employ architectural precedents in two ways.First,within each chapter,a DESCRIPTION introduces one or more precedents that demon- Figure 12:This model reflects the analysis in two dimensions of a composi- strate the principles of visual order discussed in that chapter.These essays aim tion proposed in model form-CHAPTER 7. to reveal principles in action,allowing the reader to discover systems of visual order embedded within iconic works of architecture.Second,in the final two chapters,we utilize precedents to outline essential categories of diagrams in two and three dimensions.These chapters not only summarize the role of dia grams in the design process,they also emphasize the significant role that prec- edents play in the practice of architecture. Students generally begin the study of architecture with a firmly held notion that originality is paramount,and that inspiration is necessarily autonomous and unfettered.They resist the idea that architecture works within an endur- ing discourse of theme and variation that serves as a source for informed inspiration.The analysis of precedents not only provides evidence for the presence of recurrent systems of visual order in iconic works of architecture, it also establishes the abiding presence of precedent among the works of exemplary architects. CHAPTER 8 begins with the methods embodied in the analysis of two- dimensional logic as manifested in two architecture precedents.Ludwig Mies Figure 13:Mies's House with Three Courts-shown here in plan-is the subject of the first precedent analysis in CHAPTER 8
– Building on that sequence, the second procedure group moves toward a greater complexity of figure and ground, and treats the evolution of threedimensional spatial objects on that basis. Adding to the previous discussion of diagrammatic analysis, C extends the method to more deliberate engagement with figures that represent enclosed space. In addition, the project articulates the ground as composed of multiple fields. e model also develops into a three-dimensional reality (). Moving on to , the complexity of the model – figures and fields – grows in response to further refinement through analytical drawings (). Each of these steps reflects both descriptive illustration and diagrammatic analysis. e concluding model and drawings of this thematic group depict a robust expression of architectural order among forms and across space, setting the stage for the procedures that follow. e third procedural theme – featured in – adds to the mix of ideas of order explicit notions of physical matter. e use and examination of three-dimensional models moves to the fore both as a subject of analysis and as a means of exploring the difference between structural form and envelope. In the process, we discover and discuss other forms of internal measure and proportion. By building on the method established earlier, this thematic set balances the role of drawing and three-dimensional modeling as both representation and analysis (–). roughout the first three procedures, the text provides a developing narrative concerning the relationship between two-dimensional expressions of form and three-dimensional representations. In the final group, the discussion focuses on two sets of precedent analysis – and . Two roles for precedents Systems of order embedded within works of design are not readily evident to the novice student. To nurture this, we engage beginning designers in the close visual analysis of exemplary building projects – what architects refer to as . Asking our students to diagram precedents has proven to be highly effective in enabling them to discover how patterns of order are intrinsic to the design process. In the book, we employ architectural precedents in two ways. First, within each chapter, a introduces one or more precedents that demonstrate the principles of visual order discussed in that chapter. ese essays aim to reveal principles in action, allowing the reader to discover systems of visual order embedded within iconic works of architecture. Second, in the final two chapters, we utilize precedents to outline essential categories of diagrams in two and three dimensions. ese chapters not only summarize the role of diagrams in the design process, they also emphasize the significant role that precedents play in the practice of architecture. Students generally begin the study of architecture with a firmly held notion that originality is paramount, and that inspiration is necessarily autonomous and unfettered. ey resist the idea that architecture works within an enduring discourse of theme and variation that serves as a source for informed inspiration. e analysis of precedents not only provides evidence for the presence of recurrent systems of visual order in iconic works of architecture, it also establishes the abiding presence of precedent among the works of exemplary architects. C begins with the methods embodied in the analysis of twodimensional logic as manifested in two architecture precedents. Ludwig Mies Figure 11: This analytic plan for the model below is part of a set of drawings exploring formal tectonic expression – CHAPTER 7. Figure 12: This model reects the analysis in two dimensions of a composition proposed in model form – CHAPTER 7. Figure 13: Mies’s House with Three Courts – shown here in plan – is the subject of the rst precedent analysis in CHAPTER 8