SECtIon 8 DISTORTION MEASUREMENTS High Speed Op Amp Distorti High Frequency Two-Tone generati Using Spectrum Analyzers in High Low Distortion measurements Measuring ADC Distortion using FFTS FFT Testing Troubleshooting the FFT Output nalyzing the FFT Or
1 SECTION 8 DISTORTION MEASUREMENTS High Speed Op Amp Distortion High Frequency Two-Tone Generation Using Spectrum Analyzers in High Frequency Low Distortion Measurements Measuring ADC Distortion using FFTs FFT Testing Troubleshooting the FFT Output Analyzing the FFT Output
section 8 DISTORTION MEASUREMENTS HIGH SPEED OP AMP DISTORTION Walt Kester Dynamic range of an op amp may be defined in several ways. The most common ways are to specify Harmonic Distortion, Total Harmonic Distortion (THD), or Total Harmonic Distortion Plus Noise (THD+N amp in a defined circuit configuration and observing the output spectrum. he op Harmonic distortion is measured by applying a spectrally pure sinewave to an op mount of distortion present in the output is usually a function of several parameters: the small- and large-signal nonlinearity of the amplifier being tested, the amplitude and frequency of the input signal, the load applied to the output of the amplifier, the amplifier's power supply voltage, printed circuit board layout grounding, power supply decoupling, etc. Therefore, any distortion specification is relatively meaningless unless the exact test conditions are specified. Harmonic distortion may be measured by looking at the output spectrum on a spectrum analyzer and observing the values of the second, third, fourth, etc harmonics with respect to the amplitude of the fundamental signal. The value is usually expressed as a ratio in % ppm, dB, or dBc. For instance, 0.0015% distortion corresponds to 15ppm, or-965dBc. The unit"dBc"simply means that the harmonic s level is so many db below the value of the"carrier"frequency, i.e., the fundamental Harmonic distortion may be expressed individually for each component (usually only the second and third are specified), or they all may be combined in a root-sum quare(RSS) fashion to give the Total Harmonic Distortion(THD). The distortion component which makes up Total Harmonic Distortion is usually calculated by taking the root sum of the squares of the first five or six harmonics of the fundamental. In many practical situations, however, there is negligible error if onl the second and third harmonics are included. This is because the rss process causes the higher-order terms to have negligible effect on the thD, if they are 3 to 5 times smaller than the largest harmonic. For example /0102+0032=√00109=010401
2 SECTION 8 DISTORTION MEASUREMENTS HIGH SPEED OP AMP DISTORTION Walt Kester Dynamic range of an op amp may be defined in several ways. The most common ways are to specify Harmonic Distortion, Total Harmonic Distortion (THD), or Total Harmonic Distortion Plus Noise (THD + N). Harmonic distortion is measured by applying a spectrally pure sinewave to an op amp in a defined circuit configuration and observing the output spectrum. The amount of distortion present in the output is usually a function of several parameters: the small- and large-signal nonlinearity of the amplifier being tested, the amplitude and frequency of the input signal, the load applied to the output of the amplifier, the amplifier's power supply voltage, printed circuit board layout, grounding, power supply decoupling, etc. Therefore, any distortion specification is relatively meaningless unless the exact test conditions are specified. Harmonic distortion may be measured by looking at the output spectrum on a spectrum analyzer and observing the values of the second, third, fourth, etc., harmonics with respect to the amplitude of the fundamental signal. The value is usually expressed as a ratio in %, ppm, dB, or dBc. For instance, 0.0015% distortion corresponds to 15ppm, or –96.5dBc. The unit "dBc" simply means that the harmonic's level is so many dB below the value of the "carrier" frequency, i.e., the fundamental. Harmonic distortion may be expressed individually for each component (usually only the second and third are specified), or they all may be combined in a root-sumsquare (RSS) fashion to give the Total Harmonic Distortion (THD). The distortion component which makes up Total Harmonic Distortion is usually calculated by taking the root sum of the squares of the first five or six harmonics of the fundamental. In many practical situations, however, there is negligible error if only the second and third harmonics are included. This is because the RSS process causes the higher-order terms to have negligible effect on the THD, if they are 3 to 5 times smaller than the largest harmonic. For example, 010 2 0032 . + . = 00109 . = 0104 . » 01
DEFINITIONS OF THD AND THD + N H Vs= Signal Amplitude(rms volts) V2= Second Harmonic Amplitude(rms volts) a Vn =nth Harmonic Amplitude(rms volts) a Vnoise =rms value of noise over measurement bandwidth THD+N= 2+v32+v42++2+ Voles v2+v2+v42++vn2 THD= Figure 8. 1 It is important to note that the THD measurement does not include noise terms while THD+ n does. The noise in the THD+N measurement must be integrated over the measurement bandwidth In audio applications, the bandwidth is normally chosen to be around 100kHz. In narrow-band applications, the level of the noise may be reduced by filtering. On the other hand, harmonics and intermodulation products which fall within the measurement bandwidth cannot be filtered, and therefore may limit the system dynamic range. It should be evident that the THD+N approximately equals THd if the rms noise over the measurement bandwidth is several times less than the THD, or even the worst harmonic. It is worth noting that if you know only the THD, you can calculate the THD+N fairly accurately using the amplifier's voltage- and current-noise specifications. Thermal noise associated with the source resistance and the feedback network may also need to be computed) But if the rms noise level is significantly higher than the level of the harmonics, and you are only given the THD+N specification, you cannot compute the ThD Special equipment is often used in audio applications for a more sensitive measurement of the noise and distortion. This is done by first using a bandstop filter to remove the fundamental signal (this is to prevent overdrive distortion in the measuring instrument). The total rms value of all the other frequency components (harmonics and noise) is then measured over an appropriate bandwidth. The ratio to the fundamental is the THD+N specification Audio frequency amplifiers(such as the OP-275)are optimized for low noise and low distortion within the audio bandwidth(20Hz to 20kHz). In audio applications, total harmonic distortion plus noise(THD+N) is usually measured with specialized equipment, such as the audio Precision System One. The output signal amplitude is measured at a given frequency(e. g. 1kHz); then the fundamental signal is removed with a bandstop filter, and the system measures the rms value of the remaining frequency components, which contain both harmonics and noise. The noise and harmonics are measured over a bandwidth that will include the highest harmonics
3 DEFINITIONS OF THD AND THD + N Figure 8.1 It is important to note that the THD measurement does not include noise terms, while THD + N does. The noise in the THD + N measurement must be integrated over the measurement bandwidth. In audio applications, the bandwidth is normally chosen to be around 100kHz. In narrow-band applications, the level of the noise may be reduced by filtering. On the other hand, harmonics and intermodulation products which fall within the measurement bandwidth cannot be filtered, and therefore may limit the system dynamic range. It should be evident that the THD+N approximately equals THD if the rms noise over the measurement bandwidth is several times less than the THD, or even the worst harmonic. It is worth noting that if you know only the THD, you can calculate the THD+N fairly accurately using the amplifier's voltage- and current-noise specifications. (Thermal noise associated with the source resistance and the feedback network may also need to be computed). But if the rms noise level is significantly higher than the level of the harmonics, and you are only given the THD+N specification, you cannot compute the THD. Special equipment is often used in audio applications for a more sensitive measurement of the noise and distortion. This is done by first using a bandstop filter to remove the fundamental signal (this is to prevent overdrive distortion in the measuring instrument). The total rms value of all the other frequency components (harmonics and noise) is then measured over an appropriate bandwidth. The ratio to the fundamental is the THD+N specification. Audio frequency amplifiers (such as the OP-275) are optimized for low noise and low distortion within the audio bandwidth (20Hz to 20kHz). In audio applications, total harmonic distortion plus noise (THD+N) is usually measured with specialized equipment, such as the Audio Precision System One. The output signal amplitude is measured at a given frequency (e.g., 1kHz); then the fundamental signal is removed with a bandstop filter, and the system measures the rms value of the remaining frequency components, which contain both harmonics and noise. The noise and harmonics are measured over a bandwidth that will include the highest harmonics
usually about 100kHz. The measurement is swept over the frequency range for various conditions THD+N results for the OP-275 are plotted in Figure 8.2 as a function of frequency The signal level is 3V rms, and the amplifier is connected as a unity-gain follower The data is shown for three load conditions: 600ohm. 2kohm. and 10kohm. Notice that a THD+N value of.0008% corresponds to 8ppm, or-102dBc. The input voltage noise of the OP-275 is typically 6n V/rtHz@ 1kHz, and integrated over an 80kHz noise bandwidth, yields an rms noise level of 1.7uV rms For a 3V rms signal level the corresponding signal-to-noise ratio is 125dB. Because the THd is considerably greater than the noise level, the THD component is the primary contributor. Multiple plots with variable bandwidths can be used to help separate noise and distortion THD N FOR THE OP-275 OVER 100kHz BANDWIdTH IS DOMINATED BY DISTORTION RL=600.2K,10k FREQUENCY-Hz Figure 8.2 Now, consider the AD797, a low noise amplifier(Inv/rtHz) where measurement equipment distortion, and not the amplifier distortion, limits the measurement The ID specification for the AD797 is 120dBc@ 20kHz, and a plot is shown in Figure 8.3. The distortion is at the limits of measurement of available equipment, and the actual amplifier noise is even lower by 20dB. The measurement was made with a spectrum analyzer by first filtering out the fundamental sinewave frequency ahead first five harmonics were then measured and combined in an RSS fashion to get the of the analyzer. This is to prevent overdrive distortion in the spectrum analyzer. The THD figure. The legend on the graph indicates that the measurement equipment floor"is about 120dBe; hence at frequencies below 10kHz, the THD may be even
4 usually about 100kHz. The measurement is swept over the frequency range for various conditions. THD+N results for the OP-275 are plotted in Figure 8.2 as a function of frequency. The signal level is 3V rms, and the amplifier is connected as a unity-gain follower. The data is shown for three load conditions: 600ohm, 2kohm, and 10kohm. Notice that a THD+N value of 0.0008% corresponds to 8ppm, or –102dBc. The input voltage noise of the OP-275 is typically 6nV/rtHz @ 1kHz, and integrated over an 80kHz noise bandwidth, yields an rms noise level of 1.7µV rms. For a 3V rms signal level, the corresponding signal-to-noise ratio is 125dB. Because the THD is considerably greater than the noise level, the THD component is the primary contributor. Multiple plots with variable bandwidths can be used to help separate noise and distortion. THD + N FOR THE OP -275 OVER 100kHz BANDWIDTH IS DOMINATED BY DISTORTION Figure 8.2 Now, consider the AD797, a low noise amplifier (1nV/rtHz) where measurement equipment distortion, and not the amplifier distortion, limits the measurement. The THD specification for the AD797 is 120dBc @ 20kHz, and a plot is shown in Figure 8.3. The distortion is at the limits of measurement of available equipment, and the actual amplifier noise is even lower by 20dB. The measurement was made with a spectrum analyzer by first filtering out the fundamental sinewave frequency ahead of the analyzer. This is to prevent overdrive distortion in the spectrum analyzer. The first five harmonics were then measured and combined in an RSS fashion to get the THD figure. The legend on the graph indicates that the measurement equipment "floor" is about 120dBc; hence at frequencies below 10kHz, the THD may be even less
THD OF THE AD797 OP AMP SHOWS MEASUREMENT LIMIT AT-120dBC, WHILE AMPLIFIER NOISE FLOOR IS AT -140dBc (1nV/Hz INTEGRATED OVER 100kHz BANDWIDTH) VOLTAGE NOISE THD Figure 8.3 To calculate the AD797 noise, multiply the voltage noise spectral density(In v/rtHz by the square root of the measurement bandwidth to yield the device 's rms noise floor. For a 100kHz bandwidth, the noise floor is 316nV rms, corresponding to a signal-to-noise ratio of about 140dB for a 3V rms output signal Rather than simply examining the Thd produced by a single tone sinewave input, it is often useful to look at the distortion products produced by two tones. As shown in Figure 8.4, two tones will produce second and third order intermodulation products. The example shows the second and third order products produced by applying two frequencies, f1 and f2, to a nonlinear device. The second order products located at f2 +fi and f2-f1 are located far away from the two tones, and may be removed by filtering. The third order products located at 2f1+ fo and 2f2 +fi may likewise be filtered. The third order products located at 2f1-fe and 2fo-f1, however, are close to the original tones, and filtering them is difficult. Third order IMD products are especially troublesome in multi-channel communications systems where the channel separation is constant across the frequency band
5 THD OF THE AD797 OP AMP SHOWS MEASUREMENT LIMIT AT -120dBc, WHILE AMPLIFIER NOISE FLOOR IS AT -140dBc (1nV/ Hz INTEGRATED OVER 100kHz BANDWIDTH) Figure 8.3 To calculate the AD797 noise, multiply the voltage noise spectral density (1nV/rtHz) by the square root of the measurement bandwidth to yield the device's rms noise floor. For a 100kHz bandwidth, the noise floor is 316nV rms, corresponding to a signal-to-noise ratio of about 140dB for a 3V rms output signal. Rather than simply examining the THD produced by a single tone sinewave input, it is often useful to look at the distortion products produced by two tones. As shown in Figure 8.4, two tones will produce second and third order intermodulation products. The example shows the second and third order products produced by applying two frequencies, f1 and f2, to a nonlinear device. The second order products located at f2 + f1 and f2 – f1 are located far away from the two tones, and may be removed by filtering. The third order products located at 2f1 + f2 and 2f2 + f1 may likewise be filtered. The third order products located at 2f1 – f2 and 2f2 – f1, however, are close to the original tones, and filtering them is difficult. Third order IMD products are especially troublesome in multi-channel communications systems where the channel separation is constant across the frequency band