496T fm i-xxvi 1/6/06 22: 25 Page v SEVENTH EDITION Materials science and engineering An Introduction William D. Callister. Jr. Department of Metallurgical Engineering The Unirersity of U with special contributions b1 David g rethwisch John Wiley Sons Ine
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Materials Science and Engineering An Introduction William D. Callister, Jr. Department of Metallurgical Engineering The University of Utah with special contributions by David G. Rethwisch The University of Iowa S EVENTH E DITION 1496T_fm_i-xxvi 1/6/06 22:25 Page v
496T fm i-xxvi 1/11/06 23: 05 Page vi Front Cover: A unit cell for diamond(bluegray spheres represent carbon atoms), which is positioned above the temperature-versus-loganithm pressure phase diagram for carbon; highli in blue is the region for which diamond is the stable phase Back Cover: Atomic structure for graphite: here the gray spheres depict carbon atoms. The region of graphite stability is highlighted in orange on the pressure-temperature phase diagram for carbon, which is situated behind this graphite structure. ACQUISITIONS EDITOR Joseph Hayton MARKETING DIRECTOR Frank Lyman SENIOR PRODUCTION EDITOR Ken Santor SENIOR DESIGNER Kevin Murphy COVER ART TEXT DESIGN Michael jung SENIOR ILLUSTRATION EDITOR Anna Melhorn COMPOSITOR Techbooks/GTS. York. PA ILLUSTRATION STUDIO Techbooks/GTS. York. PA This book was set in 10/12 Times Ten by Techbooks/GTS, York, PA and printed and bound by Quebecor Versailles. The cover was printed by Quebecor This book is printed on acid free paper. e Copyright o 2007 John Wiley Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (508)750-8400, fax (508)750-4470. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley Sons, Inc, 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158-0012, (212)850-6011 fax(212)850-6008,e-Mail:PermReo@wIley.com To order books or for customer service please call 1(800)225-5945 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Callister, William D. 1940- Materials science and engineering: an introduction /William D. Callister, Jr-7th ed Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN13:978-0-471-73696-7( cloth ISBN-10:0-471-73696-1( cloth) 1. Materials. I. Title TA403.C232007 620.11-dc22 005054228 Printed in the United States of america 10987654321
Front Cover: A unit cell for diamond (blue-gray spheres represent carbon atoms), which is positioned above the temperature-versus-logarithm pressure phase diagram for carbon; highlighted in blue is the region for which diamond is the stable phase. Back Cover: Atomic structure for graphite; here the gray spheres depict carbon atoms. The region of graphite stability is highlighted in orange on the pressure-temperature phase diagram for carbon, which is situated behind this graphite structure. ACQUISITIONS EDITOR Joseph Hayton MARKETING DIRECTOR Frank Lyman SENIOR PRODUCTION EDITOR Ken Santor SENIOR DESIGNER Kevin Murphy COVER ART Roy Wiemann TEXT DESIGN Michael Jung SENIOR ILLUSTRATION EDITOR Anna Melhorn COMPOSITOR Techbooks/GTS, York, PA ILLUSTRATION STUDIO Techbooks/GTS, York, PA This book was set in 10/12 Times Ten by Techbooks/GTS, York, PA and printed and bound by Quebecor Versailles. The cover was printed by Quebecor. This book is printed on acid free paper. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (508)750-8400, fax (508)750-4470. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158-0012, (212) 850-6011, fax (212) 850-6008, E-Mail: PERMREQ@WILEY.COM. To order books or for customer service please call 1(800)225-5945. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Callister, William D., 1940- Materials science and engineering : an introduction / William D. Callister, Jr.—7th ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-471-73696-7 (cloth) ISBN-10: 0-471-73696-1 (cloth) 1. Materials. I. Title. TA403.C23 2007 620.1’1—dc22 2005054228 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1496T_fm_i-xxvi 1/11/06 23:05 Page vi
496T fm i-xxvi 1/6/0603: 19 Page xv Contents LIST OF SYMBOLS xXiii 1. Introduction I Learning Object 1.1 Historical Perspective 2 1. 2 Materials Science and Engineering 3 1.3 Why Study Materials Science and Engineering? 5 1.4 Classification of materials 5 .5 Advanced materials 11 1.6 Modern materials Needs 12 2. Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding 15 Learning Objectives 16 2.1 Introduction 16 ATOMIC STRUCTURE 16 2.2 Fundamental Concepts 16 2.3 Electrons in Atoms 17 2.4 The Periodic Table 23 ATOMIC BONDING IN SOLIDS 24 2.5 Bonding Forces and Energies 24 6 Primary Interatomic Bonds 26 2.7 Secondary Bonding or van der Waals Bonding 30 2. 8 Molecules 32 ummary 34 Important Terms and Concepts 34 References 35 Questions and Problems 35 3. The Structure of Crystalline Solids 35 Learning Objectives 39 3.1 Introduction 39 3.2 Fundamental Concepts 39 3.4 Metallic Crystal Structures 41 3.5 Density Computations 45 3.6 Polymorphism and Allotropy 46
• xv Contents LIST OF SYMBOLS xxiii 1. Introduction 1 Learning Objectives 2 1.1 Historical Perspective 2 1.2 Materials Science and Engineering 3 1.3 Why Study Materials Science and Engineering? 5 1.4 Classification of Materials 5 1.5 Advanced Materials 11 1.6 Modern Materials’ Needs 12 References 13 2. Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding 15 Learning Objectives 16 2.1 Introduction 16 ATOMIC STRUCTURE 16 2.2 Fundamental Concepts 16 2.3 Electrons in Atoms 17 2.4 The Periodic Table 23 ATOMIC BONDING IN SOLIDS 24 2.5 Bonding Forces and Energies 24 2.6 Primary Interatomic Bonds 26 2.7 Secondary Bonding or van der Waals Bonding 30 2.8 Molecules 32 Summary 34 Important Terms and Concepts 34 References 35 Questions and Problems 35 3. The Structure of Crystalline Solids 38 Learning Objectives 39 3.1 Introduction 39 CRYSTAL STRUCTURES 39 3.2 Fundamental Concepts 39 3.3 Unit Cells 40 3.4 Metallic Crystal Structures 41 3.5 Density Computations 45 3.6 Polymorphism and Allotropy 46 1496T_fm_i-xxvi 1/6/06 03:19 Page xv
496T fm i-xxvi 1/6/06 02: 56 Page xvi Xv· Contents 7 Crystal Systems 46 5.4 Nonsteady-State Diffusion 114 CRYSTALLOGRAPIlIC POINTS. DIRECTIONS. AND 5.5 Factors That Influence Diffusion 118 PLANES 49 5.6 Other Diffusion Paths 125 3. 8 Point Coordinates 4 Summary 125 3.9 Crystallographic Directions 51 Important Terms and Concepts 126 3.10 Crystallographic Planes 5 References 126 Questions and Problems 126 3.11 Linear and Planar densities 60 Design Problems 129 3.12 Close-Packed Crystal Structures 61 CRYSTALLINE AND NONCHYSTALLINE MATERIALS 63 6. Mechanical Properties of Metals 131 3. 13 Single Crystals 63 Learning Objectives 132 3.14 Polycrystalline Materials 64 6.1 Introduction 132 3.15 Anisotropy 64 6.2 Concepts of Stress and Strain 133 3.16 X-Ray Diffraction: Determination of ELASTIC DEFORMATION 137 Crystal Structures 66 6.3 Stress-Strain Behavior 137 3.17 Noncrystalline Solids 71 140 ma八 Important Terms and Concepts 73 6.5 Elastic Properties of Materials 141 erences PLASTIC DEFORMATION 143 Ouestions and Problems 74 6.6 Tensile Properties 144 6.7 True Stress and Strain 151 4. Imperfections in Solids 5o 6.8 Elastic Recovery after Plastic Deformation 154 Learning Objectives 81 6.9 Compressive, Shear, and Torsional 4.1 Introduction 81 Deformation 154 POINT DEFECTS 81 6.10 Hardness 155 4.2 Vacancies and self-Interstitials 81 PROPERTY VARIABILITY AND DESIGN/SAFETY 4.3 Impurities in Solids 83 FACTORs 161 4.4 Specification of Composition 85 6. 11 Variability of Material Properties 161 MISCELLANEOUS LMIPERFECTIONS 88 6.12 Design/Safety Factors 163 4.5 Dislocations-Linear defects 88 4.6 Interfacial Defects 92 Important Terms and Concepts 166 4.7 Bulk or volume defects 96 References 1 4.8 Atomic vibrations 9 Questions and Problems 166 Design Problems 172 MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION 9 4.9 General 4.10 Microscopic Techniques 98 Z. Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanisms 12+ 4.11 Grain Size determination 102 Learning Objectives 175 Important Terms and Concepts 105 7.1 Introduction 175 eferences 10 DISLOCATIONS AND PLASTIC Questions and Problems 106 Design Problems 108 DEFORMATION 175 7.2 Basic Concepts 175 5. Diffusion 109 7.3 Characteristics of Dislocations 178 7.4 Slip Systems 179 Learning Objectives 110 7.5 Slip in Single Crystals 18 5.1 Introduction 110 7.6 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline 5.2 Diffusion mechanisms 111 Materials 185 5.3 Steady-State Diffusion 112 7.7 Deformation by Twinning 185
3.7 Crystal Systems 46 CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC POINTS, DIRECTIONS, AND PLANES 49 3.8 Point Coordinates 49 3.9 Crystallographic Directions 51 3.10 Crystallographic Planes 55 3.11 Linear and Planar Densities 60 3.12 Close-Packed Crystal Structures 61 CRYSTALLINE AND NONCRYSTALLINE MATERIALS 63 3.13 Single Crystals 63 3.14 Polycrystalline Materials 64 3.15 Anisotropy 64 3.16 X-Ray Diffraction: Determination of Crystal Structures 66 3.17 Noncrystalline Solids 71 Summary 72 Important Terms and Concepts 73 References 73 Questions and Problems 74 4. Imperfections in Solids 80 Learning Objectives 81 4.1 Introduction 81 POINT DEFECTS 81 4.2 Vacancies and Self-Interstitials 81 4.3 Impurities in Solids 83 4.4 Specification of Composition 85 MISCELLANEOUS IMPERFECTIONS 88 4.5 Dislocations–Linear Defects 88 4.6 Interfacial Defects 92 4.7 Bulk or Volume Defects 96 4.8 Atomic Vibrations 96 MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION 97 4.9 General 97 4.10 Microscopic Techniques 98 4.11 Grain Size Determination 102 Summary 104 Important Terms and Concepts 105 References 105 Questions and Problems 106 Design Problems 108 5. Diffusion 109 Learning Objectives 110 5.1 Introduction 110 5.2 Diffusion Mechanisms 111 5.3 Steady-State Diffusion 112 5.4 Nonsteady-State Diffusion 114 5.5 Factors That Influence Diffusion 118 5.6 Other Diffusion Paths 125 Summary 125 Important Terms and Concepts 126 References 126 Questions and Problems 126 Design Problems 129 6. Mechanical Properties of Metals 131 Learning Objectives 132 6.1 Introduction 132 6.2 Concepts of Stress and Strain 133 ELASTIC DEFORMATION 137 6.3 Stress-Strain Behavior 137 6.4 Anelasticity 140 6.5 Elastic Properties of Materials 141 PLASTIC DEFORMATION 143 6.6 Tensile Properties 144 6.7 True Stress and Strain 151 6.8 Elastic Recovery after Plastic Deformation 154 6.9 Compressive, Shear, and Torsional Deformation 154 6.10 Hardness 155 PROPERTY VARIABILITY AND DESIGN/SAFETY FACTORS 161 6.11 Variability of Material Properties 161 6.12 Design/Safety Factors 163 Summary 165 Important Terms and Concepts 166 References 166 Questions and Problems 166 Design Problems 172 7. Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanisms 174 Learning Objectives 175 7.1 Introduction 175 DISLOCATIONS AND PLASTIC DEFORMATION 175 7.2 Basic Concepts 175 7.3 Characteristics of Dislocations 178 7.4 Slip Systems 179 7.5 Slip in Single Crystals 181 7.6 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Materials 185 7.7 Deformation by Twinning 185 xvi • Contents 1496T_fm_i-xxvi 1/6/06 02:56 Page xvi
496T fm i-xxvi 01/10/06 22: 13 Page xvi: MECHANISMS OF STRENGTHENING 9.2 Solubility Limit 254 M 7.8 Strengthening by Grain Size 9.4 Microstructure 255 Reduction 18 9.5 Phase Equilibria 255 7.9 Solid-Solution Strengthening 190 9.6 One-Component (or Unary) Phase 7.10 Strain Hardening 191 Diagrams 256 RECOVERY RECRYSTALLIZATION. AND GRAIN BINARY PHASE DIAGRAMS 258 9.7 Binary Isomorphous Syste 7.1 9.8 Interpretation of Phase Diagrams 2( 7.12 Recrystallization 195 9.9 Development of Microstructure in 7. 13 Grain Growth 200 Isomorphous Alloys 264 9.10 Mechanical Properties of Isomorphous Important Terms and Concepts 202 Alloys 268 References 202 9.11 Binary Eutectic Systems 269 Questions and Problems 202 Design Problems 206 9.12 Development of Microstructure in Eutectic Alloys 276 9.13 Equilibrium Diagrams Having s. Failure 202 Intermediate Phases or Learning Objectives 208 Compounds 282 8.1 Introduction 208 9.14 Eutectic and Peritectic Reactions 284 9.15 Congruent Phase FRACTURE 208 Transformations 286 8.2 Fundamentals of fracture 208 9.16 Ceramic and Ternary Phase 8.3 Ductile Fracture 209 Diagrams 287 8.4 Brittle fracture 211 9.17 The Gibbs Phase Rule 287 8.5 Principles of Fracture Mechanics 215 THE IRON-CARBON SYSTEM 290 8.6 Impact Fracture Testing 223 9.18 The Iron-Iron Carbide(Fe-Fe3C)Phase FATIGUE 227 Diagram 290 8.7 Cyclic Stresses 9.19 Development of Microstructure in 8. 8 The s-N Curve Iron-Carbon Alloys 293 8.9 Crack Initiation and propagation 9.20 The Influence of Other Alloying 8.10 Factors That A ffect fatig 232 Elements 301 8.11 Environmental Effects Summary 302 CREEP 238 Important Terms and Concepts 303 8.12 Generalized Creep Behavior 238 References 303 Questions and Problems 304 8.13 Stress and Temperature Effects 239 8.14 Data Extrapolation Methods 241 10. Phase Transformations in Metals 8.15 Alloys for High-Temperature Use 242 Development of Microstructure Summary 243 and Alteration of Mechanical Important Terms and Concepts 245 31 Questions and Problems 246 Learning Objectives 312 10.1 Introduction 312 PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS 312 9. Phase diagrams 2.52 10.2 Basic Concepts 312 10.3 The Kinetics of phase Learning Objectives 253 Transformations 313 9.1 Introduction 253 10.4 Metastable versus Equilibrium DEFINTTIONS AND BASIC CONCEPTS 25:
MECHANISMS OF STRENGTHENING IN METALS 188 7.8 Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction 188 7.9 Solid-Solution Strengthening 190 7.10 Strain Hardening 191 RECOVERY, RECRYSTALLIZATION, AND GRAIN GROWTH 194 7.11 Recovery 195 7.12 Recrystallization 195 7.13 Grain Growth 200 Summary 201 Important Terms and Concepts 202 References 202 Questions and Problems 202 Design Problems 206 8. Failure 207 Learning Objectives 208 8.1 Introduction 208 FRACTURE 208 8.2 Fundamentals of Fracture 208 8.3 Ductile Fracture 209 8.4 Brittle Fracture 211 8.5 Principles of Fracture Mechanics 215 8.6 Impact Fracture Testing 223 FATIGUE 227 8.7 Cyclic Stresses 228 8.8 The S–N Curve 229 8.9 Crack Initiation and Propagation 232 8.10 Factors That Affect Fatigue Life 234 8.11 Environmental Effects 237 CREEP 238 8.12 Generalized Creep Behavior 238 8.13 Stress and Temperature Effects 239 8.14 Data Extrapolation Methods 241 8.15 Alloys for High-Temperature Use 242 Summary 243 Important Terms and Concepts 245 References 246 Questions and Problems 246 Design Problems 250 9. Phase Diagrams 252 Learning Objectives 253 9.1 Introduction 253 DEFINITIONS AND BASIC CONCEPTS 253 Contents • xvii 9.2 Solubility Limit 254 9.3 Phases 254 9.4 Microstructure 255 9.5 Phase Equilibria 255 9.6 One-Component (or Unary) Phase Diagrams 256 BINARY PHASE DIAGRAMS 258 9.7 Binary Isomorphous Systems 258 9.8 Interpretation of Phase Diagrams 260 9.9 Development of Microstructure in Isomorphous Alloys 264 9.10 Mechanical Properties of Isomorphous Alloys 268 9.11 Binary Eutectic Systems 269 9.12 Development of Microstructure in Eutectic Alloys 276 9.13 Equilibrium Diagrams Having Intermediate Phases or Compounds 282 9.14 Eutectic and Peritectic Reactions 284 9.15 Congruent Phase Transformations 286 9.16 Ceramic and Ternary Phase Diagrams 287 9.17 The Gibbs Phase Rule 287 THE IRON–CARBON SYSTEM 290 9.18 The Iron–Iron Carbide (Fe–Fe3C) Phase Diagram 290 9.19 Development of Microstructure in Iron–Carbon Alloys 293 9.20 The Influence of Other Alloying Elements 301 Summary 302 Important Terms and Concepts 303 References 303 Questions and Problems 304 10. Phase Transformations in Metals: Development of Microstructure and Alteration of Mechanical Properties 311 Learning Objectives 312 10.1 Introduction 312 PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS 312 10.2 Basic Concepts 312 10.3 The Kinetics of Phase Transformations 313 10.4 Metastable versus Equilibrium States 324 1496T_fm_i-xxvi 01/10/06 22:13 Page xvii