The MATERIALS SCIENCE Of THIN FILMS Milton Ohring
The Materials Science of Thin Films Milton orin Stevens institute of Technology Department of Materials Science and Engineering Academic Press San Diego New York Boston London Sydney Tokyo Toronto
I I I The Materials Science of Milton Ohring Stevens Institute of Technology Department of Materials Science and Engineering Hoboken, New Jersey Academic Press San Diego New York Boston London Sydney Tokyo Toronto
This book is printed on acid-free paper. o Copyright e 1992 by Academic Press All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher Designed by Elizabeth E. Tustin ACADEMIC PRESS A Division of Harcourt Brace& Company 525 B Street, Suite 1900. San Diego. Califomia 92101.4495 United Kingdom Edition published b ACADEMIC PRESS LIMITED 24-28 Oval Road, London NWI 7DX Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data The materials science of thin films/ Milton Ohrin Includes bibliographical references and index ISBN 0-12-524990-X (Alk. paper) 1. Thin fIms. 1. Title TA4189.T450471991 62044-dc20 Printed in the United States of Amenca 9900020Mv10987
This book is printed on acid-free paper. @ Copyright 0 1992 by Academic Pres No pari of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording. or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Designed by Elizabeth E. Tustian ACADEMIC PRESS A Division of Harcouri Brace d; Company 525 B Street, Suite 1900. San Diego, California 92101-4495 United Kingdom Uition published by ACADEMIC PRESS LIMITED 24-28 Oval Rod. London NWI 7DX All rights reserved. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ohring. Milton, date. The materials science of thin films / Milton Ohring. Includes bibliograpbical references and indcx. ISBN 0-12-524990-X (Alk. paper) 1. Thin films. I. Title. TA418.9.T45oQ7 1991 p. cm. 620'.44-&20 91-9664 CIP Printed in the United States of America 99 00 01 02 03 MV11 10 9 8 7
Contents Acknowledgments Thin Films-A Historical Perspective A Review of Materials Science I 1. Introduction 1. 2. Structure 1. 3. Defects in Solids 10 1. 4. Bonding of Materials 1.5. Thermodynamics of Materials 21 neues 1. 7. Nucleation 40 1. 8. Conclusion 43 Exercises Referer Vacuum Science and Technology 49 2.1. Kinetic Theory of Gases 2. 2. Gas Transport and Pumping 55
+ Contents Foreword ............................................. xi Preface .............................................. xiii ... Acknowledgments ..................................... xvii Thin Films - A Historical Perspective ........................ xix Chapter 1 A Review of Materials Science ......................... 1 1.1. Introduction ........................................ 1 1.2. Structure .......................................... 2 1.3. Defects in Solids .................................... 10 1.4. Bonding of Materials ................................. 14 1.5. Thermodynamics of Materials ........................... 21 1.6. Kinetics .......................................... 33 1.7. Nucleation ......................................... 40 1.8. Conclusion ........................................ 43 Exercises ......................................... 43 References ........................................ 46 Chapter 2 Vacuum Science and Technology ..................... 49 2.1. Kinetic Theory of Gases ............................... 49 2.2. Gas Transport and Pumping ............................. 55 V
Contents 2.3. Vacuum Pumps and Systems Excercise References 257 Chapter 3 Physical Vapor Deposition 3. 1. Introduction 3.2. The Physics and Chemistry of Evaporation 3. 3. Film Thickness Uniformity and Purity 3. 4. Evaporation Hardware and Techniques 988%0 3.5. Glow Discharges and Plasmas 3.6. Sputtering 3.7. Sputtering Processes l18 3.8. Hybrid and Modified PVD Processes Exercises References Chapter 4 Chemical Vapor Deposition 147 4. 1. Introduction 147 4. 2. Reaction Types 4.3. Thermodynamics of CVD 155 4,4. Gas Transport ..... 162 4. 5. Growth Kinetics 4.6. CVD Processes and Systems Exercises 190 References Chapter 5 Film Formation and Structure 195 5. 1. Introduction 5.2. Capillarity Theory 5.3. Atomistic Nucleation Processes 206 5. 4. Cluster Coalescence and Depletion 213 5.5. Experimental Studies of Nucleation and Growth 219 5.6. Grain Structure of Films and Coatings 5.7. Amorphous Thin Films Exercises References
vi Contents 2.3. Vacuum Pumps and Systems ............................ 62 Excercises ......................................... 75 References ........................................ 77 Chapter 3 3.1. Introduction ........................................ 79 Physical Vapor Deposition ........................... 79 3.2. The Physics and Chemistry of Evaporation ................... 81 3.3. Film Thickness Uniformity and Purity ...................... 87 3.4. Evaporation Hardware and Techniques ..................... 96 3.5. Glow Discharges and Plasmas ........................... 101 3.6. Sputtering ........................................ 109 3.7. Sputtering Processes ................................. 118 3.8. Hybrid and Modified PVD Processes ...................... 132 Exercises ......................................... 140 References ........................................ 144 Chapter 4 Chemical Vapor Deposition ......................... 147 4.1. Introduction ....................................... 147 4.2. Reaction Types ..................................... 149 4.3. Thermodynamics of CVD ............................. 155 4.4. Gas Transport ..................................... 162 4.5. Growth Kinetics .................................... 167 4.6. CVD Processes and Systems ............................ 177 Exercises ......................................... 190 References ........................................ 193 Chapter 5 Film Formation and Structure ........................ 195 5.1. Introduction ....................................... 195 5.2. Capillarity Theory .................................. 198 5.3. Atomistic Nucleation Processes .......................... 206 5.4. Cluster Coalescence and Depletion ....................... 213 5.5. Experimental Studies of Nucleation and Growth .............. 219 5.6. Grain Structure of Films and Coatings ..................... 223 5.7. Amorphous Thin Films ............................... 234 Exercises ......................................... 243 References ........................................ 246