Feeney and Collins 123 Table 3.Immediate Outcomes of Receiving SOS and RC Support:Pathways Linking Support to Long-Term Thriving. Immediate outcome SOS support RC support 1.Emotional state discourage nt.sadness.de air,oss/grief,guil citement,pride,interest,happiness,j onder ness aneer forgiveness,safety,security,relief,serenity/peace (anticipatory worry) Restore healthy affective baance 7 e self as capable of accomplishing goals(state e 3.Appraisals of the rces as outweighing demands Expect positive outcomes of engaging in opportunity situation or even valuable,worth time and nce as leacn gtopositive hange 4.Motivational state Switch fro avoidance/prevention orientation to Approach/promoton n n toward the what n b(n what 5.Situation-relevant nts in copine strateeies and self persistence at life opportunity ehaviors egulation .and stance/ utcome or s more rtunities Successful rebuilding (replace old with new) support-provider's cial ac and bonding utcomes, ess with support expectations d.and cared for despite pansion with significa ing suppe Deactivation of neural area sed activation of neural areas associate ted with safet une,en d with ndo eponsered ine,and cardiovascula uced cortisol and ca scula Rel seof neurop es in anabolic processes(increases in bone and 8.Health and lifestyle ualit reased physical and mental activity e re restorative activities(relaxation,hobbies. Better diet/nutrition and sleep quality Note.SOS=source ofs RC=relational catalys 30
Feeney and Collins 123 Table 3. Immediate Outcomes of Receiving SOS and RC Support: Pathways Linking Support to Long-Term Thriving. Immediate outcome SOS support RC support 1. Emotional state Decreases in negative emotions: fear, anxiety, doubt, discouragement, sadness, despair, loss/grief, guilt, shame, embarrassment, hurt/broken-heartedness, rejection, loneliness, helplessness, anger, frustration, resentment, jealousy, envy Increases in positive emotions: love, hope, gratitude, forgiveness, safety, security, relief, serenity/peace/ calm Restore healthy affective balance Increases in positive emotions: enthusiasm, excitement, pride, interest, happiness, joy, wonder, awe, curiosity, amusement, surprise; feel inspired, lively, energetic, invigorated; also feel love, gratitude Decreases in negative emotions: release from concerns about failure or guilt for use of resources (anticipatory worry) 2. Self-evaluations and self-perceptions Increased self-acceptance and self-compassion; restored sense of self-integrity Perceive self as capable of overcoming adversity Perceive self as strong and resilient Increased self-confidence; feelings of competency and empowerment; state self-esteem Perceive self as capable of accomplishing goals (state self-efficacy) Perceive self as accomplished/skilled and engaged in life 3. Appraisals of the situation or event Appraisals of resources as outweighing demands View problem as controllable and temporary, or belief that one can deal successfully with it if cannot be changed Appraisals of experience as leading to positive change Expect positive outcomes of engaging in opportunity; expect to accomplish goals Appraisals of experience as valuable, worth time and effort View opportunity as meaningful and having potential to impact others 4. Motivational state Switch from avoidance/prevention orientation to approach/promotion orientation Motivated to make changes in life and rebuild; motivated to persevere Motivated by expectations of what can be (not what currently is) Approach/promotion motivation toward the opportunity; increased intrinsic motivation Motivated to stretch to new levels (not settle for good enough) Motivated to leave comfort zone to reach potential 5. Situation-relevant behaviors, resources, and outcomes Improvements in coping strategies and selfregulation Problem resolution; a changed circumstance/ outcome or successful adaptation to a circumstance that cannot be changed Successful rebuilding (replace old with new) Learning from the experience Engagement in and persistence at life opportunity Goal accomplishment/progress Production of high-quality result Opened doors for more opportunities Learning from the experience 6. Relational outcomes, attitudes, and expectations Feelings of trust (confidence in support-provider’s availability and goodwill) Feelings of emotional closeness with supportprovider Feel accepted, loved, and cared for despite vulnerabilities Belief that seeking support in adversity is beneficial Feelings of social acceptance and bonding Feel valued and respected by others Form new social connections View that others believe in one’s abilities (reflected appraisals) Self-expansion with significant others Belief that seeking support for life opportunities is beneficial 7. Neural activation and physiological functioning Deactivation of neural areas associated with threat Increased activation of reward-related neural areas associated with safety Adaptive immune, endocrine, and cardiovascular functioning associated with reduced stress response (reduced cortisol and cardiovascular threat response) Release of neuropeptides involved in social bonding (endogenous opioids and oxytocin) Increased activation of neural areas associated with reward, positive affect, positive challenge, representation of goals, decision making, and dopamine release Adaptive immune, endocrine, and cardiovascular functioning associated with positive affect and challenge Increases in anabolic processes (increases in bone and muscle mass) 8. Health and lifestyle behaviors Better diet/nutrition and sleep quality Decreased use of addictive substances as means of coping Better self-care, adherence to health care regimens Increased physical and mental activity More restorative activities (relaxation, hobbies, sports, vacation) Better diet/nutrition and sleep quality Note. SOS = source of strength; RC = relational catalyst. Downloaded from psr.sagepub.com at Remen University of China on September 6, 2015
124 Personality and Social Psychology Review 19(2) and facilitat motional r hen the list belief that one c empathy and encourages cognitive reframing (NilsRime. ssfully to a problem tion that cannot be changed.Particularly important for thriv. 2012). RC suppor is expected to activate (or amplify)a broade Sprrdicto he r th at one may emerge from e edict appraisals of the pride,and curiosity.RC support also may lead one to feel opportunity as a positive challenge versus a threat.and as inspired,lively,energetic,and invigorated.These emotions likely to result in positive outcomes.This includes expecta these predictions.research has shown that being in the pre resulting accomplishments.These predictions are consistent ence of a close other,or merely thinking about a supportive expres sponsive suppoh 2010),and with research showing that when individuals the SOS support should more strongly (thar the nd cor tion-ppo d.which (Gable et:Reis et a2010).Although RC support ccurity needs,and seeks to avoid losses (sc should act most strongly on positive emotions,it should als Shah&Higgins,1997).However,because SOS support is that an evoked whe ing negative effec of adversity vention ori for using shared resources.Instilling excitement/enthusiasm for the pursuit of opportunit es and rele hments,advancemen needs,and patory concers are prmary runcnons suppor approach Self evaluations and selfpercebtions.Recipients of SOS sup age growth through adversity by motivati g individuals to port should experience fee make changes in th eir lives,work toward rebuilding.and n(forgiving re o vere th kind efficacy and perceived control to the extent that it has oursuits,a natural immediate consequence should be ar us avoidance motivation to App D nt in predictor ofstate runity instead of focusing on avoiding and empo erment involving t).One is motivated self-effi acy (powe ew lev settle fo or good enough.Th plished.skilled.and engaged in life.These predictions are one to growand reach one's potential.Evidence for thi consistent with evidence in dicating that the responsive support comes from t rch showing that re strivings/explorat is ass with a (B. ne's o or showing that thinkin (B.C.Feeney,2004,2007:B.C.Feeney &Thrush,2010). romantic partner (vs.an acquaintance)reduces defensive ponses (se failure during demands of the situation (Lazarus&Folkman,1984).Othe ing life o rtunities This is nsistent with researeh appraisals include views of the problem as controllable and showing that intrinsic motivation,which is a principal source emporary (not the way circumstances always will be).or the of enjoyment and vitality throughout life,is most likely to
124 Personality and Social Psychology Review 19(2) and facilitate emotional recovery when the listener expresses empathy and encourages cognitive reframing (Nils & Rimé, 2012). RC support is expected to activate (or amplify) a broader range of positive emotions than SOS support including enthusiasm/excitement, interest, happiness, joy, amusement, pride, and curiosity. RC support also may lead one to feel inspired, lively, energetic, and invigorated. These emotions (in addition to love and gratitude that should emerge from both support processes) reflect the anticipation and pursuit of valued life opportunities, as well as the social sharing of resulting accomplishments. These predictions are consistent with research showing that responsive support for goals/ exploration is linked with greater expressed enthusiasm during exploration activities and increases in positive mood afterwards (B. C. Feeney, 2004; B. C. Feeney & Thrush, 2010), and with research showing that when individuals share good news and receive enthusiastic responses, they experience enhanced positive mood that enables them to savor the experience and continue to accrue benefits from it (Gable et al., 2004; Reis et al., 2010). Although RC support should act most strongly on positive emotions, it should also reduce negative emotions that are sometimes evoked when individuals pursue life opportunities, including concerns about failure or feelings of guilt for taking time for oneself or for using shared resources. Instilling excitement/enthusiasm for the pursuit of opportunities and releasing one from anticipatory concerns are primary functions of RC support. Self-evaluations and self-perceptions. Recipients of SOS support should experience feelings of self-acceptance, selfcompassion (forgiving oneself for a failure or transgression, being kind to oneself), and a restored sense of self-integrity. Receipt of SOS support also should predict increased selfefficacy and perceived control to the extent that it has equipped the recipient with courage, knowledge, resources, or skills to overcome the adverse circumstance. Because RC support promotes successful engagement in life opportunities, this should be a strong predictor of state self-esteem, self-confidence, and empowerment involving feelings of competency and self-efficacy (power to produce desired effects). Specific self-perceptions may include views of the self as capable of accomplishing goals, and as accomplished, skilled, and engaged in life. These predictions are consistent with evidence indicating that the responsive support of goal strivings/exploration is associated with increases in state self-esteem, perceived self-efficacy, perceived ability to achieve one’s goals, self-confidence, and perceived capability (B. C. Feeney, 2004, 2007; B. C. Feeney & Thrush, 2010). Appraisals of the situation or event. Receipt of SOS support should predict appraisals that one’s resources outweigh the demands of the situation (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Other appraisals include views of the problem as controllable and temporary (not the way circumstances always will be), or the belief that one can adapt successfully to a problem or situation that cannot be changed. Particularly important for thriving, SOS support should predict appraisals of the experience as leading to positive change—that one may emerge from adversity as better or stronger than before. Receipt of RC support should predict appraisals of the opportunity as a positive challenge versus a threat, and as likely to result in positive outcomes. This includes expectations of success, and appraisals of the experience as meaningful, valuable, and worth one’s time and effort. Corroborating these predictions, research has shown that being in the presence of a close other, or merely thinking about a supportive other, makes the physical world (a steep hill) appear less daunting (Schnall et al., 2008), and that responsive support of exploration/goals is linked with greater perceptions that exploration is worthwhile (B. C. Feeney & Thrush, 2010). Motivational state. SOS support should more strongly (than RC support) result in a regulatory orientation that is prevention-focused, which emphasizes safety, responsibility, and security needs, and seeks to avoid losses (see Higgins, 1997; Shah & Higgins, 1997). However, because SOS support is not just about minimizing negative effects of adversity but is about thriving through the experience, this support function should assist individuals in switching from a prevention orientation to a promotion orientation (which emphasizes hopes, accomplishments, advancement needs, and seeks to approach gains; Shah & Higgins, 1997) once safety and security needs are met. In this way, SOS support can encourage growth through adversity by motivating individuals to make changes in their lives, work toward rebuilding, and persevere through difficult times. Because RC support encourages pursuit of life opportunities and releases one from constraints that may hinder these pursuits, a natural immediate consequence should be an increase in approach versus avoidance motivation toward the opportunity (Elliot, 2008). Approach motivation enables one to focus on the potential rewards to be gained by the opportunity instead of focusing on avoiding potentially negative outcomes (e.g., failure or embarrassment). One is motivated to stretch to new levels and not settle for good enough. This motivational state involves boldness and willingness to pull up stakes (not get stuck at one level) and leave one’s comfort zone to grow and reach one’s potential. Evidence for this comes from research showing that responsive support provision is associated with a greater willingness to engage in autonomous exploration (B. C. Feeney, 2007), and from experimental work showing that thinking about a responsive romantic partner (vs. an acquaintance) reduces defensive responses (self-handicapping) to potential failure during a challenging task (Caprariello & Reis, 2011). Responsive RC support should also lead to increased intrinsic motivation for pursuing life opportunities. This is consistent with research showing that intrinsic motivation, which is a principal source of enjoyment and vitality throughout life, is most likely to Downloaded from psr.sagepub.com at Remen University of China on September 6, 2015