Image on Faper Multidle Meseages B.K Ferceptval Image Figure 1-23 Dialogue. Graphic thinking takes advantage of the power of visual perception by making visual images external and explicit.By putting them on paper,we give visual images objectivity outside our brain,an existence of their own over time.As Robert McKim points out, graphic thinking,as externalized thinking: Mental Image has several advantages over internalized thought. First,direct sensory involvement with materials pro- orientahon--→ vides sensory nourishment-literally 'food for thought.'Second,thinking by manipulating an actual structure permits serendipity-the happy accident, the unexpected discovery.Third,thinking in the direct context of sight,touch,and motion engenders a sense of immediacy,actuality,and action.Finally, the externalized thought structure provides an object for critical contemplation as well as a visible form Service that can be shared with a colleague." Pivate more publc To the person who must regularly seek new solu- tions to problems,who must think creatively,these qualities of immediacy,stimulation,accident,and New Tmage on Faper contemplation are very important.To these qualities I would add one more special attribute of graphic thinking,simultaneity.Sketches allow us to see a great amount of information at the same time,expos- ing relationships and describing a wide range of sub- tleties.Sketches are direct and representative. t wtenor According to Arnheim,"The power of visual language lies in its spontaneous evidence,its almost childlike simplicity....Darkness means darkness,things that belong together are shown together,and what is great and high appears in large size and in a high location." Figure 1-22 Evolution of images. Graphic Thinking As a Communication Process 9
I Figure 1-22 Evolution of images. Figure 1-23 Dialogue. Graphic th inking takes advantage of the pow er of visual perception by making vis ual images extern al and exp licit. By putti ng th em on paper, we give vis ua l images objectivity outside our brain , an existen ce of their ow n over time. As Robert McKim p oi nts out, gra phic th in king, as externalized th inking: has several advantages over internalized thought. First, direct sensory involvement with materials provides sensory nourishment-literally 'food for thought.' Second, thin k ing by manipulating an actual structure permits serendipity-the happy accident, the unexpected discovery . Third, thinking in the direct context ofsight, touch, and mo tion engenders a sense of immediacy, actuality, and action. Finally, the ex ternalized thought structure provides an object for critical contemplation as well as a visible form tha t can be shared with a colleague." To the person w ho must reg ularly se ek new solu tions to problems, who must think creatively, the se q ualities of immedia cy, stimu la tio n, accide nt, and contempla tion are very importa nt. To these qualities I would add one more sp ecia l att r ib ute of graph ic thin k in g, simu lta neity. Sketc hes a llow us to see 'a great amount of informa tion at the same time, exposing re lationships and describing a wide range of subtleties. Sketch es are direct an d represen ta tive. According to Arn he irn, "Th e power of visual language lies in its sp ont aneous evidence, its almost ch ildlike simplici ty.. .. Darkn ess means darkn es s, thin gs tha t be long together are shown toget her, and what is great and high appear s in large size and in a high location. "7 Graphic Thinking As a Communication Process 9
Figure 1-24 By David Stiegletz.Development sketches on back of a placemat,Siegler Residence. HOTEL MERCUR ABENT DOGNET RUND Figure 1-25 Front of placemat,Hotel Mercur,Copenhagen. 10 Introduction
I , ' -1 \ ',' .\} ' -Y .!'--, :;.. .,. ,. i\ J~ Figure 1-24 By David Stiegletz. Development sketches on back of a placemat, Siegler Residence. Figure 1-25 Front of placemat, Hotel Mercur, Copenhagen. 10 Introduction
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION A standard story that many architects delight in telling describes how the most basic concept for a multimillion-dollar project was first scribbled on the back of a restaurant napkin.I have wondered why both the teller and the listener always seem to derive amusement from such a story.Perhaps the story restores confidence in the strength of the individual designer,or maybe it is the incongruity that decisions on such important matters are being made in such a SENDEE KECEIVER relaxed,casual manner.Viewing this story in the con- Architect Chent text of graphic thinking,it is not at all surprising that Designer MEDIA Audience inspired,inventive thinking should take place at a restaurant table.Not only are the eyes,minds,and hands of at least two persons interacting with the images on the napkin,but also they are further stim- ulated by conversation.Besides,these persons are CONTEXT separated from their day-to-day work problems;they Objectives,Location,Euvironment;Timc Circomstanccs are relaxing in a pleasant atmosphere,and with the consumption of good food,their level of anxiety is Figure 1-26 The structure of communications. significantly reduced.They are open,ready,prepared for discovery;indeed,it would be surprising only if the most creative ideas were not born in this setting. To be effective communicators,architects must: As further chapters review the many ways 1.Understand the basic elements of communica- graphic thinking is used in the practice of architec- tion-the communicator,the receiver or audience, ture,it is critical to remember that individuals cannot the medium,and the context-and their role in really be cut off from their environment or their soci- effectiveness. ety.The graphic thinking of one person thrives in the 2.Develop a graphic language from which to draw presence of good company and a supportive atmos- the most effective sketches for specific communi- phere.Seek both enthusiastically. cation tasks. Although the medium with which this book deals 3.Never take for granted the process of communica- is principally freehand sketches,the basic methods are tion and be willing to take the time to examine applicable to many graphic media.But each specific their effectiveness. medium has some unique characteristics that have Basic communication theory stresses the commu- special effects on communication.Experimentation nication loop between the communicator or sender with different media is the fastest route to using them and the receiver in order to attain maximum effec- effectively.Although there are books on the use of tiveness.Response from the audience is essential to a these media,there is no substitute for practice, speaker who wants to get his message across.The because we all have different needs and abilities. information coming from the receiver is as important The context for communication includes such as what the sender,the architect,transmits.And so things as location,time,duration,weather,and type we must pay very close attention to those persons of space,what took place before the communication, with whom we hope to communicate.The best what will take place after.We may be able to control approach is to try to place oneself in their shoes. some of these context variables,but we cannot afford What are they expecting?What are their concerns? to ignore them. Equally important,we should be aware of our moti. vations and concerns.Do we have an unconscious or hidden agenda？ Bffective Communication 1 1
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION A st andard story th at many architects delight in tell in g de scribes how the most ba sic conc ept fo r a multimillion -doll ar project was first scribbled on the ba ck of a restaurant na pkin. I have wo nd ered why both th e telle r and th e listener always seem to derive am use ment from suc h a sto ry. Perhaps the story restores confidence in the strength of the individual de signe r, or maybe it is the incongruity that de cision s on suc h importa nt matters ar e being made in suc h a re laxed, cas ua l mann er. Viewing th is story in the con text of graphic thinking, it is not at all sur prising th at in spired, inven tive thinkin g sho ul d take place at a resta urant tabl e. Not only are th e eyes, minds, and hands of at least two persons interacting with th e images on th e napkin , but als o they ar e further stimulated by con versation . Besi des, these pe rsons a re separa ted from th eir day-to-day wo rk prob lems; they are rel axing in a pleasant atmosphere, and with th e consumptio n of good food , th eir level of anxiety is significan tly recfuced. They ar e op en , ready, prepared for discovery; indeed, it would be surprising onl y if the most creative ideas were not born in this setting. To be effective communica tors, arc hitec ts must: 1. Unders ta nd the basic elem ent s of commun ica tion-th e com m unicator, th e receiver or aud ience, the med ium, and the context-e-and their role in effect iven ess. 2. Develop a grap hic language from which to dr aw the most effective sketch es for specific com m unicati on tasks. 1 . Never take for gra nted th e process of comm unication and be w illing to tak e the time to examin e their effectiveness. Basic communica tion th eory stresses th e com m unication loop between the communica tor or sender and the receiver in order to attain maximum effectiveness. Response from th e audienc e is essential to a speaker who wants to get his mes sa ge across. The information coming from the receiver is as importa nt as what th e sender, th e archit ect, transmits. And so we must pay very clo se atten tio n to th ose pers ons with whom we h ope to communica te . The best approac h is to try to place one se lf in th eir shoes. What ar e th ey expecting? What are th eir conce rns? Equ ally important, we should be awa re of our mot ivations and conce rns. Do we have an unconscious or hidden agenda? 17 e. ~elv£R ArGhrtt.e..t c /il'nt l' ~"'(.Y' Y\c. CONlE-XT ObJe-d'lVe?1 Lo CCt IOl'\, flo'V lI'DI)/Io' t n0 11Ml / Clrcuyy,.<;{o.I1 C1'S Figure 1-26 The structure of communications. As furth er chapters r eview th e many way s graphic thinking is used in the practice of architecture, it is critical to remember that individ uals cannot really be cut off from their environment or th eir society. The grap hic thinking of one person thrives in the presence of good compa ny and a su pportive atmosphere. Seek both enthusiastically. Altho ugh th e medium with which this book dea ls is principally fre ehand sketches, th e basic me thods are applicable to many graphic media. But each specific medium has som e uniq ue characteristics th at have special effec ts on com m unication. Expe rim enta tion with differ ent media is th e fast est route to using them eff ect ively. Although there are books on th e us e of th ese med ia, th ere is no su bstitute for practi ce, becau se we all have different needs and abilities. The context for com m unication includes su ch th ings as location , time, duration, weather, and type of space, wha t took place be fore the commu nic ation, what will ta ke place after. We may be able to control some of these context variables, but we ca nnot afford to igno re th em . Effective Comm unication 11
Figure 1-27 Gym,St.Mary's College,C.F.Murphy Associates, Figure 1-28 Wall section,Headquarters Building,Smith, architects. Hinchman Grylls Associates,Inc. THE ROLE OF GRAPHIC THINKING IN their purpose is to explain to other people the prod- ARCHITECTURE ucts of our thinking,the conclusions.Training in architectural schools has been primarily geared To realize the potential of graphic thinking in archi- toward the attainment of finished presentation skills, tecture,we must understand today's prevailing atti- while in architectural offices,the emphasis has been tudes on the design process and the use of drawings on turning out working drawings that clearly present in that process.In the early 1960s,A.S.Levens was the necessary directives for the contractors. able to write with confidence that: In response to Levens'analogy,graphic thinking One source of confusion in thinking about design is treats drawings more like a piano than a score sheet. the tendency to identify design with one of its lan- Like composition,design is possible without an guages,drawing.This fallacy is similar to the confu- instrument to provide feedback,but for most design- sion which would result if musical composition were ers this is not very productive.Design thinking and to be identified with the writing of notes on a staff of design communication should be interactive;this five lines.Design,like musical composition,is done implies new roles for graphics.As we anticipate the essentially in the mind and the making of drawings potential of computers and other evolving communi- or writing of notes is a recording process. cation technologies,the concept of feedback will be Today,we have broader concepts of how and key to effective use of media. where design takes place,but drawings are still nor- mally thought of as simply representations of ideas; 12 Introduction
I t o o o st .. 0:.;::,.() i: ~o Q ,.:;. 1.'1 1 .. jii!11 Figure 1-27 Gym, St. Mary's College, C. F. Murphy Associates, architects. THE ROLE OF GRAPHICTHINKING IN ARCHITECTURE To realize the potential of gra phic th in king in ar chi tecture, we must understand today 's prevailing attitu de s on th e design process and the use of d raw ings in that process. In th e early 1960s, A. S. Levens was able to write with confidence tha t: One source of confusion in thi nking about design is the tendency to identify design wi th one of its languages, drawing. This fallacy is similar to the confusion which would result if musical composition were to be identi fied with the writing of not es on a sta ff of five lines. Design, lik e musical composition, is done essentially in the mind an d the making of drawings or writing of notes is a recording process.8 Today, we hav e broade r conc ep ts of how and wher e design takes place, but drawings are still norma lly th ought of as sim ply representations of ideas; Figure 1-28 Wall sectio n, Headquarters Building, Smith, Hinchman & Grylls Associates, Inc. their pur pose is to explain to other pe opl e the products of our th inkin g, the co ncl usions. Tra ining in ar chitectural sch ool s has been primarily gear ed towar d the at tain ment of finished presentation skills, while in architectural offi ces, th e emphasis has been on turning out working drawings that clearly pr esent the necessary directives for the contractors. In response to Levens' ana logy, graphic th inking treats drawings more like a piano than a score sheet. Like composition, design is possib le witho ut an instrument to provide feedback, bu t for most designers this is not very produ ctive. Design thi nking and design communica tion sh ould be interactive; this implies new roles for graph ics. As we anticipate th e poten tial of computers and other evol ving communication te ch nol ogies, the con cept of feedback wi ll be key to effective use of media . 12 Introduction
RERESENTATiON CoNCEPTon ANALY5IS A品RACTiON EXPLORATION EX PRESS ION DL6CoV华R INDIVIDUAL VERIRCATION TEAM Pubhic Figure 1-29 ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK building could get designing started.Distortion of an The first major section of the book is devoted to the elevation might reveal a new approach to detailing. basic graphic thinking skills of representation and con- Reversal of a process diagram might suggest a modifi- ception.The section includes four chapters dealing cation of the building program. with drawing,the use of conventions,abstraction,and The third section of the book considers graphic expression.My aim is to promote an awareness of the thinking as communication in three design contexts: rich variety of graphic tools available for adding pro- individual,team,and public.The emphasis is on better ductivity and enjoyment to thinking activities. communication so that ideas can be shared. The second section of the book addresses the This book is a collection of images,ideas,and application of graphic thinking to design processes. devices that I hope are helpful and enjoyable.The Its four chapters discuss analysis,exploration,discov- approach is eclectic rather than discriminating,inclu- ery,and verification.Although there are some obvious sive not exclusive,expectant not conclusive.The applications of these uses to a number of design intent is not simply to describe examples but to con- process models,I have purposely avoided promoting vey the excitement of graphic thinking and even a specific design process.One of the problems with make it contagious.We all have special,unique design process models is their acceptance in too sim- capacities for thinking,which,if unlocked,could plistic a way;types of thinking or behavior are cate- make great contributions to the solution of problems gorized,and the intermeshing of processes and ideas we face.Arnheim emphasizes that "Every great artist is ignored.Instead of categories,we need flexibility. gives birth to a new universe,in which the familiar Manipulation of graphic images,for example,might things look the way they have never before looked to be used at many stages of designing.I still would not anyone.This book is written in anticipation of a attempt to guess where it would be handy for a spe- time when many of us will be able to give birth to our cific project.Manipulation of the stereotypes for a own universes. Organization of the Book 13
• INDlVl DUAL IEAM Figure 1-29 ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK The first major sec tion of th e book is devoted to the basic grap hic th inking ski lls of repre sen tation and conception . The section incl udes four chapters dealing with drawi ng, the use of conventions, abstraction, and expression . My aim is to pro mo te an awareness of the rich variety of graphic tools availab le for adding productivity and enjoyme n t to th in king activities. The se cond sectio n of the book addresses the applicat ion of graphic thinking to de sign processes. Its four chapters discuss analysis, exploration, discovery, and verificat ion . Although there are some obvious applicat ions of thes e uses to a n umber of design pr ocess models, I have purposely avo ided promoting a spec ific design process. One of the problems wi th design proce ss models is th eir accept ance in too simplistic a way; types of th inking or behavior are categorized, and the int ermeshing of processes and ide as is ignored. Instead of cat egories, we ne ed flex ibility. Ma nip ulat ion of graphic images, for example, might be used at ma ny stages of de signi ng . I still wo uld not attempt to guess w here it wo uld be ha ndy for a specific proj ect . Manipulation of the stereotyp es for a bu ild ing could get designing started. Distortion of an eleva tion might reveal a new approach to de tailing. Reversal of a process diagram might suggest a mo dification of the bu ilding program. The third section of the book considers graphic th inking as communi cation in three des ign cont exts: individual, team, and public. The emphasis is on better communication so that ideas can be sha red. Th is book is a collection of image s, id eas, and de vices that I hope a re he lp fu l and enjoyable. The approach is eclectic ra ther than dis crimi nating, inclusive not excl usive, expectant not con clu sive. The intent is not simpl y to describe examples bu t to convey th e excitement of grap hic th inking and even make it contagious. We all have sp ecial , uniqu e capacities for th inking, w hich , if un locked, co uld make grea t contributions to th e solution of problems we face. Arn heim emphasizes tha t "Every gre a t art ist gives birth to a new un iverse, in which the familiar things look the way th ey have never before looked to anyone. " 9 This book is written in anticipation of a time when many of us w ill be able to give birth to our own uni verses. Organization of the Book 1 3