Figure 1-8 Battle of Cety I with the Cheta YY Figure 1-9 Greek geometry Fiqure 1-10 Exploration map. Figure 1-11 Constellation of stars VISUAL COMMUNICATION THROUGH TIME such as Egyptian hieroglyphics,were highly special- ized sets of symbols derived from pictures.The devel- Throughout history,vision has had an important opment of geometry,combining mathematics with impact on thinking.Starting with the caveman,draw- diagrams,made it possible to think of structure and ings were a way of "freezing"ideas and events out- other abstractions of reality.This led to the construc- side of him and creating a history.In many ways,the tion of objects or buildings of monumental scale from "second world"man created through his images was designs.In addition to trying to make sense of his critical to the evolution of thinking.Man was able to immediate surroundings,man used drawings to separate the here and now from what could be imag- reach out nto the unknown.Maps reconstituted ined,the future.Through images,the world of the from notes and sketches of explorers sparked the spirit,the ideal world of mythology,and compelling imagination and stimulated new discoveries about utopias became immediate and real.The ideals of an our world and the universe. entire culture could be contained in one picture;the unspeakable could be shared with others.From earli- In spite of the ascendance of written language, visual communication continues to be an essential est times,this visual expression of thinking has been communal.Once a concept,such as the notion of part of the way we think.This is revealed in these phrases that liberally sprinkle our everyday conversa- man being able to fly,was converted to an image,it tion:"I see what you mean;take another look at the was free to be reinterpreted again and again by others until the airplane was invented. situation;put this all in perspective."Although research opinion varies,it seems generally accepted Man used signs and symbols long before written that 70 to 80 percent of what we learn is through languages were adopted.Early written languages, sight.Cight seems to be the most rapid and compre- Introduction
Figure 1-8 Battle of Cety I with the Cheta. - Figu re 1-9 Greek geometry Figure 1-10 ExpLoration map. Figure 1-11 Constellation of sta rs VISUAL COMMUNICATION THROUGH TIME Throughout history, vision has had an important imp act on th inking. Starting with th e caveman , dr aw ings we re a way of "freez ing" ideas and events outside of him and creati ng a history. In many ways, the "second wo rld " man crea ted through his images was critical to the evolution of thinking. Man was able to separate th e he re an d now from what could be imagined, the future. Through im ages, the world of the spirit, the ideal world of mythology, and compelling utop ias be came immedia te an d real. Th e ideals of an entire culture could be contained in one pi cture; the unsp eakable could be shared with others. Fro m earliest times, this visual expression of thinking ha s be en communa l. Once a concept, such as the notion of man be ing able to fly, wa s converted to an image, it was free to be reinterpreted again and again by others un til the airplane was invented. Ma n used signs and symbols lon g before written lang uages were ado p ted. Early w ritte n languages, such as Egyptian hieroglyphics, were highly sp ecialized sets of symbols derived from pict ures. Th e development of geometry, combining mathematics w ith diagrams, made it possible to think of structure and othe r abstractions of reality. This led"to the const ruction of objects or buildings of monumental scal e from desi gns. In addition to tr ying to make se nse of his immediat e surroundings, man used drawings to reach outnto the unknown. Ma ps recons tituted from notes and sketches of explorers spar ked the im aginati on and sti m ulate d new d iscoveries about our world and th e un iverse. In spite of the ascendance of writt en language, visual com m unication con tin ue s to be an essential part of the wa y we think. This is re ve aled in th ese phrases that liberally sp rinkle our everyday conversation: "I see what you mean ; take anothe r look at the situation ; put this all in pe rspective." Although research opinion varies, it seems gen erally acc epted that 70 to 80 p ercent of what we learn IS through sigh t. ;:jight seems to be the most rapid an d compre- 4 Int rodu ction
SUSHI Figure 1-12 Figure 1-13 Figure 1-14 Figure 1-15 Figure 1-16 Figure 1-17 hensive of our senses for receiving information. ear,fragmented but sequential way....Now,the term Through centuries of conditioning,we rely on vision pattern...will apply increasingly in understanding the for an early warning of danger.Not only have we world of total-environmental stimuli into which we come to depend on sight as a primary means of are moving."We seek patterns,not only to screen for understanding the world,but we have also learned to significance of information,but also to illustrate translate information picked up by the senses into processes or structures by which our world operates. visual clues so that,in many ways,sight is actually The emerging technology for collecting,storing,and used as a substitute for the other senses. displaying different models of reality holds exciting There is ample evidence that visual communica- promise.Computer-constructed satellite maps,video tion is becoming an even more powerful force in our games,computer graphics,and the miniaturization of lives.The most obvious example is television, computing and recording equipment will open up a through which we can explore the skies,the oceans, new era in visual communication. and the societies of our shrinking planet.We rely The full use of this new capability will be directly heavily on graphics to explain and persuade. related to the development of our own visual think- Cartoons have become a very sophisticated means of ing."Computers cannot see or dream,nor can they distilling and reflecting our culture.But the most sig- create:computers are language-bound.Similarly, nificant revolution is the shift of visual communica- thinkers who cannot escape the structure of lan- tion from the realm of specialists to that of the guage,who are unaware that thinking can occur in general public.Instantly developing film and video ways having little to do with language,are often uti- recorders are just the beginning of the visual tools that lizing only a small part of their brain that is indeed will become as common as the PC and the calculator. like a computer.This observation by Robert McKim The potential of visual communication will be points out the critical issue of man-machine interac- tested as we begin the twenty-first century.Two over- tion.The new equipment is of no value in itself;it is riding features are the deluge of information that we only as good as our imagination can make it.If we are must absorb and the increasingly interactive nature to realize the potential of visual technology,we must of the problems we must solve.As Edward Hamilton learn to think visually. put it,"Up...to the present age we have absorbed information in a one-thing-at-a-time,an abstract,lin- Visual Communication Through Time5
Ir= m I I ~~ Figure 1-12 Figure 1-13 Figure 1-14 Figure 1-15 Figure 1-16 he nsive of ou r se nses fo r rec eIvm g in formation. Throug h centuries of condi tion ing, w e rely on vision for a n ea rly warn ing of danger. Not only h ave we com e to depend on sight as a primary means of understandi ng the world , but we ha ve also learn ed to transla te in fo rmation pi cked up by the senses in to visual clu es so tha t, in many ways, sigh t is actu all y us ed as a substitu te for the other senses. There is ample evidence that visual communica tion is becomi ng an even more powerful force in our lives. The most obvi ous exam p le is te levision , thr ough which we can explore th e skies, the ocea ns, and the societ ie s of our sh ri n king p lanet. We re ly heavily on graphics to exp lain a nd p ersuade. Cartoons have become a very sophisticated mean s of distilling an d reflecti ng our cultur e. But th e most sign ificant re volutio n is the sh ift of visual com mun ication from the realm of specialis ts to that of th e gen eral p ublic. In st an tly developing film and video recorders are just th e beg inning of th e visual tools that w ill becom e as common as the PC an d the calc ulator. The poten tia l of visua l comm u n ica tion w ill be tested as we be gin th e tw ent y-first ce ntury. Two overriding features are the de luge of inf ormation that w e must absorb and th e increasingly inte rac tive na ture of the problems we must solve . As Edward Hamilto n p ut it, "Up...to the present age we h av e absorbed information in a one -th ing-at-a-time, an abs tract, linFigure 1-17 ear, fragmented but sequential way... . Now, the term pattern...w ill ap p ly increasingly in understanding th e w orld of total -environ menta l stimul i in to which we are mo ving.'? We se ek pattern s, no t only to screen for significa nce of informatio n , bu t also to illustr a te processes or stru ctures by w hich our world opera tes. The emerging technology for collecting, storing, and disp layi ng differen t models of reality holds exciting promise. Computer-cons truc ted satellite maps, video games, comput er gr aphics, and th e mi niaturization of comp uting and re cording equipment will open up a new era in visual com m un ication . The full use of this new capability w ill be directly related to the develop ment of our ow n visual thinkin g. "Com p uters ca nno t see or dream , nor can they cr ea te : comp u ters are la nguage-bo und . Sim ilarly; thinkers w ho cannot escape the struc ture of lan guage , w ho are u naw are tha t thin king can occur in ways having littl e to do w ith language, are often ut ilizing only a small part of their brain that is indeed like a comput er." This observation by Robert McK im points out the critic al issue of man-machine inter action . The new equip ment is of no va lue in itself; it is on ly as good as our imagination can make it. If we are to realize the potential of visual technology, we must lea rn to think visua lly. Visual Communication Thro ugh Time 5
Figure 1-18 Conceptual sketches. VISUAL THINKING The study of visual thinking has developed in major part from the study of creativity within the field of psychology.The work of Rudolph Arnheim in the psychology of art has been particularly significant.In his book,Visual Thinking,he laid a basic framework for research by dissolving the artificial barrier between thinking and the action of the senses."By cognitive,I mean all mental operations involved in receiving,storing,and processing of information: sensory perception,memory,thinking,learning." This was a new way of understanding perception, namely,an integration of mind and senses;the focus of the study of creativity shifts from the mind or the senses to the interaction of both.Visual thinking is therefore a form of thinking that uses the products of vision-seeing,imagining,and drawing.Within the context of designing,the focus of this book is on the third product of vision,drawings or sketches.When thinking becomes externalized in the form of a sketched image,it can be said to have become graphic. There are strong indications that thinking in any field is greatly enhanced by the use of more than one sense,as in doing while seeing.Although this book's focus is on architectural design,it is my hope that other readers will find the explanations and examples useful.The long history of architectural design has produced a great wealth of graphic techniques and imagery in response to highly complex,comprehen- sive,quantitative-qualitative problems.Today,archi- tectural design attempts to deal with our total man-made environment,a problem that is personal and pressing for everyone.The graphic thinking tools used by architects to solve problems of interaction, Figure 1-19 Conceptual sketches. conflict,efficiency,and aesthetics in buildings have now become important to all parts of society with its own increasingly complex problems. 6 Introduction
Figure 1-18 Conceptual sketches. VISUALTHINKING The study of visual thin king has developed in maj or pa rt from the st udy of cr ea tivity wi thin the field of psycho logy. The work of Rudolph Arnheim in th e psychology of art has been particularly signi fica nt. In his book, Visual Think ing, he laid a basic fram ework for r esearch by dissolving the artificial barrier I bet ween th in king and the ac tion of the se nses. "By f cognitive , I mean all mental operations involve d in re ce iving, sto ri ng, and processing of information: . ;// . f ,;:;:, se n sory perce ption , memory, th inking , learning.'" r Ii,,"· This was a new w ay of understand ing per cep tion , /" :k'f '< '. :' ''', ,, L, . , ._ . namely, an int egration of mi nd and senses; th e focu s J 'h!"..J..{J. .. .._. k ./ -. ,: of the study of creativity sh ifts from the mi nd or th e ;;." f '" \ ( "... senses to the in terac tion of both. Vis ual th in king is . -,' ''''';-- . i. . , .- '-"0 i ... .-.... , th erefore a form of th inking that uses the products of vision-seeing, imagining, and drawi ng. Wi thi n th e ~'~;1i.~::i··: ;' ::::c,," ...; «>t'n~"," :11< ' "lY.<r:;;c . context of de signing, th e focus of this book is on th e G third product of vision, draw ings or sketches. When . 'if';' '., ' l. c ' - " . ' , --- -' rt' I ..:J., .. '\ thinking becomes externalized in th e form of a -...... l' oIO" j ) 'I . sketched image, it can be sa id to have become ..< 1/, '1 I ,.:,.... ( _ \ _~. ;' graphic. . \ There ar e stro ng indications that thinking in any oIl.: '\ { field is greatly enha nced by th e us e of more than one sense, as in doing while seeing. Although this book 's focus is on architectura l design, it is my hope tha t Jt,~~ \ \ . other readers will find the explanation s and examples y .] I t ,,· - -I. ' ' !'t •. f useful. The long history of a rc hitectura l design has ." ., ,, . :'l'...".f' \' c....~t" prod uced a grea t wealth of graphic tech niques and ": imagery in response to highly complex, comprehen " sive, quantitative-qual itative problems. Tod ay, arc hi ! te ctura l design attem pts to deal w ith our total 1 man-made environment , a prob lem that is pers onal and pressing for everyone . The graphic thinking tools used by archi tec ts to solve prob lems of intera ction, Figure 1-19 Conceptual sketches. conflict, efficie ncy, and aesthetic s in buildings have now become important to all part s of society with its own increasingly complex problems. Introduction . r~.r iF • 100;: i'J . " ., , J ! \; '; . i 6
Figure 1-20 Conceptual sketches using digital media. Visual Thinking
J Figure 1-20 Conceptual sketches using digital media. Visual Thinking
g88 Figure 1-21 Graphic thinking process. GRAPHIC THINKING AS A COMMUNICATION represent spaces in a house that is yet to be designed. PROCESS Depending on my experience,interests,and what I am trying to do,I will see certain things in the sketch The process of graphic thinking can be seen as a con- and ignore others.The resulting perceptual image versation with ourselves in which we communicate segregates special-use spaces,the living room and with sketches.The communication process involves kitchen,from several other more private or support the sketched image on the paper,the eye,the brain, spaces.Next,I form a mental image to further organ- and the hand.How can this apparently closed net- ize the spaces and give them orientation based on work generate ideas that are not already in the brain? what I already know about the site or a southern Part of the answer lies in the definition of an idea exposure for the living room and kitchen.When this The so-called new ideas are really a new way of look- mental image is transferred to paper once more,it ing at and combining old ideas.All ideas can be said goes through yet another change in which the special to be connected;the thinking process reshuffles spaces begin to take on distinctive forms. ideas,focuses on parts,and recombines them.In the diagram of the graphic-thinking process,all four This is,of course,an oversimplification of the parts-eye,brain,hand,and sketch-have the capa- process.Graphic thinking,like visual communication bility to add,subtract,or modify the information that with the real world,is a continuous process. Information is simultaneously darting all over the is being passed through the communication loop.The eye,assisted by perception,can select a focal point network.When graphic thinking is most active,it is and screen out other information.We can readily similar to watching a fantastic array of fireworks and accept that the brain can add information.But the looking for the one you really enjoy.Not only is it productive,it is fun.In Arnheim's words,"Far from other two parts,hand and sketch,are also important to the process.A difference often exists between being a passive mechanism of registration like the what we intend to draw and what actually is drawn. photographic camera,our visual apparatus copes Drawing ability,materials,and our mood can all be with the incoming images in active struggle."s sources of change.And yes,even the image on paper Visual thinking and visual perception cannot be is subject to change.Differences in light intensity and separated from other types of thinking or perception. angle,the size and distance of the image from the eye, Verbal thinking,for example,adds more to the idea of reflectivity of paper,and transparency of media all a kitchen or living room with such qualifiers as open up new possibilities. bright,open,or comfortable.Obviously,graphic thinking is not all you need to know in order to solve The potential of graphic thinking lies in the con- tinuous cycling of information-laden images from problems or think creatively,but it can be a basic paper to eye to brain to hand and back to the paper. tool.Graphic thinking can open up channels of com- Theoretically,the more often the information is munication with ourselves and those people with passed around the loop,the more opportunities for whom we work.The sketches generated are impor- change.In the sequence of images opposite,for exam- tant because they show how we are thinking about a ple,I started with a sketch of cartoon-like bubbles to problem,not just what we think about it. 8 Introduction
\ I~ Figure 1-21 Graphic thin king process. GRAPHIC THINKING AS A COMMUNICATION PROCESS The proc ess of graphic th inking ca n be seen as a conversa tion wi th ourselves in w hich we communicate w ith sketches. Th e communication p rocess involves the sketched image on th e paper, th e eye, the brain, an d the hand. How can this ap parently closed ne twork gen erate ideas th at ar e not already in the br ain? Part of the answer lies in th e definition of an ide a . Th e so-called new ideas are really a new way of looking at and com bining old ide as. All ide as can be said to be connected; the thinking p rocess re shuffles ideas, focuses on pa rts, and re combines th em . In th e diagram of th e graphic-thin ki ng p rocess , all four pa rts-eye, brain , hand, a nd ske tch- have the capability to add, subtract, or mo dify the information tha t is being passed throu gh th e communica tion loop . The eye, assisted by pe rc eption, can select a foca l point and screen out other informat ion . We can re adily accep t that the brain can add in formation . But th e oth er two parts, han d and sketch , are also important to the proce ss. A differ ence often exists betw een what we intend to draw and wha t act ually is draw n . Draw ing ability, materials, and our mood ca n all be sources of change. And yes, even the image on pa per is subjec t to change. Differences in ligh t in tensity and angle, the size and distance of th e image from the eye, reflect ivity of pap er, and transp are ncy of media all op en up new possibilities. The potential of graphic thinking lies in the contin uou s cycling of inform ati on-laden images from pa pe r to eye to brain to hand and back to the paper. Theoreticall y, the more often the information is passed aroun d the loop , th e more opportunities for change. In th e sequen ce of images opposite, for example, I started with a sketch of car toon-l ike bubble s to Introduction rep re sent spaces in a hou se tha t is ye t to be designed. Depending on my experience, int er est s, and what I am trying to do , I will see cert ain th ings in the sketch and ign or e others. The resulting perce pt ual image seg r ega tes sp ec ial-use spaces, the living roo m and kitchen , fr om several other mo re priva te or support spaces. Next, I form a mental image to further organize th e spaces and give them or ienta tion bas ed on what I already kn ow about th e site or a south ern exposur e for the living room and kitchen. Wh en this menta l image is tr a nsferred to paper once mo re, it goes th rough yet another ch ange in which the special spaces begin to take on distinctive forms. This is, of course, an overs imp lification of the process. Grap hic thi nkin g, like visu al com munication with th e real world, is a contin uous process. Information is sim ultaneously darting all over the ne tw ork. When graphic thinking is mo st active , it is similar to wa tching a fantastic array of fireworks and loo king for the one yo u really enjoy. Not only is it productive, it is fun . In Arnheim 's words, "Far from bei ng a passive mechanism of registration like the p ho togr aphi c camera , our vis ual appa ra tu s copes with th e incoming images in active str uggle;" Visu al thin kin g and visual per ception cannot be separated from ot her types of thinking or percept ion . Ver bal thinking, for example, adds mo re to the idea of a ki tchen or living room w ith su ch qualifiers as brigh t, open , or comfort able. Obviously, graphic thinking is not all you need to know in order to solve problems or thi n k creatively, but it ca n be a ba sic tool. Graphic thinking can op en up chan nels of comm unica tion w ith ou rse lve s and those people w ith w hom we work. The sketches generated are impo rtan t because they show how we are th inking about a problem, not ju st w ha t we th ink abo ut it. - 8