ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I will always be indebted to the following people for their invaluable contributions to the original edition of this work:Forrest Wilson.whose insights into the communication of design principles helped clarify the organization of the material,and whose support made its initial publication possible:James Tice,whose knowledge and understanding of architectural history and theory strengthened the development of this study:Norman Crowe.whose diligence and skill in the teaching of architecture encouraged me to pursue this work:Roger Sherwood. whose research into the organizational principles of form fostered the development of the chapter on ordering principles:Daniel Friedman. for his enthusiasm and careful editing of the final copy:Diane Turner and Philip Hamp,for their assistance in researching material for the illustrations;and to the editorial and production staff at Van Nostrand Reinhold.for their exceptional support and serviceduring the making of the first edition. For the second edition,my appreciation extends to the many students and their teachers who have used this book over the years and offered suggestions for its improvement as a reference and tool for study and teaching.I want to especially thank the following educators for their careful critique of the first edition:L.Rudolph Barton,Laurence A.Clement,Jr.,Kevin Forseth,Simon Herbert,Jan Jennings,Marjorie Kriebel,Thomas E.Steinfeld,Cheryl Wagner.James M.Wehler,and Robert L.Wright. In preparing the third edition,Iam grateful to Michele Chiuini,Ahmeen Faroog,and Dexter Hulse for their thoughtful reviews of the second edition.While lattempted to incorporate much of their wise counsel, I remain solely responsible for any deficiencies remaining in the text.I especially want to express my gratitude to the editorial and production staff at John Wiley Sons for their invaluable support and encouragement,and to Nan-ching Tai for his creative contributions and technical assistance in preparing the electronic component of the third edition. Dr.Karen Spence,Gary Crafts.Lohren Deeg.and Dr.Ralph Hammann provided valuable insights and suggestions for this fourth edition.I want to especially recognize Paul Drougas and Lauren Olesky of John Wiley& Sons for their continuing editorial assistance and support.which made this publication not only possible but also an enjoyable endeavor. To Debra,Emily,and Andrew.whose love of life itis ultimately the role of architecture to nourish. VIII ARCHITECTURE:FORM,SPACE,ORDER
VIII / ARCHITECTURE: FORM, SPACE, & ORDER I will always be indebted to the following people for their invaluable contributions to the original edition of this work: Forrest Wilson, whose insights into the communication of design principles helped clarify the organization of the material, and whose support made its initial publication possible; James Tice, whose knowledge and understanding of architectural history and theory strengthened the development of this study; Norman Crowe, whose diligence and skill in the teaching of architecture encouraged me to pursue this work; Roger Sherwood, whose research into the organizational principles of form fostered the development of the chapter on ordering principles; Daniel Friedman, for his enthusiasm and careful editing of the final copy; Diane Turner and Philip Hamp, for their assistance in researching material for the illustrations; and to the editorial and production staff at Van Nostrand Reinhold, for their exceptional support and service during the making of the first edition. For the second edition, my appreciation extends to the many students and their teachers who have used this book over the years and offered suggestions for its improvement as a reference and tool for study and teaching. I want to especially thank the following educators for their careful critique of the first edition: L. Rudolph Barton, Laurence A. Clement, Jr., Kevin Forseth, Simon Herbert, Jan Jennings, Marjorie Kriebel, Thomas E. Steinfeld, Cheryl Wagner, James M. Wehler, and Robert L. Wright. In preparing the third edition, I am grateful to Michele Chiuini, Ahmeen Farooq, and Dexter Hulse for their thoughtful reviews of the second edition. While I attempted to incorporate much of their wise counsel, I remain solely responsible for any deficiencies remaining in the text. I especially want to express my gratitude to the editorial and production staff at John Wiley & Sons for their invaluable support and encouragement, and to Nan-ching Tai for his creative contributions and technical assistance in preparing the electronic component of the third edition. Dr. Karen Spence, Gary Crafts, Lohren Deeg, and Dr. Ralph Hammann provided valuable insights and suggestions for this fourth edition. I want to especially recognize Paul Drougas and Lauren Olesky of John Wiley & Sons for their continuing editorial assistance and support, which made this publication not only possible but also an enjoyable endeavor. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS To Debra, Emily, and Andrew, whose love of life it is ultimately the role of architecture to nourish
INTRODUCTION Architecture is generally conceived-designed-realized-built-in response to an existing set of conditions.These conditions may be purely functional in nature.or they may also reflect in varying degrees the social.political,and economic climate.In any case.it is assumed that the existing set of conditions-the problem-is less than satisfactory and that a new set of conditions-a solution-would be desirable.The act of creating architecture.then,is a problem-solving or design process. The initial phase of any design process is the recognition of a problematic condition and the decision tofind a solution toit. Design is above all a willful act.a purposeful endeavor.A designer must first document the existing conditions of a problem, define its context,and collect relevant data to be assimilated and analyzed.This is the critical phase of the design process since the nature of a solution is inexorably related to how a problem is perceived,defined,and articulated.Piet Hein,the noted Danish poet and scientist,puts it this way:Art is solving problems that cannot be formulated before they have been solved.The shaping of the question is part of the answer. Designers inevitably and instinctively prefigure solutions to the problems they are confronted with.but the depth and range of their design vocabulary influence both their perception of a question and the shaping of its answer.If one's understanding of a design language is limited,then the range of possible solutionstoa problem will also be limited.This book focuses,therefore.on broadening and enriching a vocabulary of design through the study of its essential elements and principles and the exploration of a wide array of solutions to architectural problems developed over the course of human history. As an art,architecture is more than satisfying the purely functional requirements of a building program.Fundamentally.the physical manifestations of architecture accommodate human activity.However.the arrangement and ordering of forms and spaces also determine how architecture might promote endeavors,elicit responses,and communicate meaning.So while this study focuses on formal and spatial ideas,itis not intended to diminish the importance of the social political,or conomic aspects of architecture.Form and space are presented not as ends in themselves but as means to solve a problem in response to conditions of function,purpose.and context-that is,architecturally. The analogy may be made that one must know and understand the alphabet before words can be formed and a vocabulary developed;one must understand the rules of grammar and syntax before sentences can be constructed:one must understand the principles of composition before essays,novels,and the like can be written.Once these elements are understood.one can write poignantly or with force.call for peace or incite to riot.comment on trivia or speak with insight and meaning.In a similar way.it might be appropriate to be able to recognize the basic elements of form and space and understand how they can be manipulated and organized in the development of a design concept,before addressing the more vital issue of meaning in architecture. INTRODUCTION IX
Architecture is generally conceived—designed—realized—built—in response to an existing set of conditions. These conditions may be purely functional in nature, or they may also reflect in varying degrees the social, political, and economic climate. In any case, it is assumed that the existing set of conditions—the problem—is less than satisfactory and that a new set of conditions—a solution—would be desirable. The act of creating architecture, then, is a problem-solving or design process. The initial phase of any design process is the recognition of a problematic condition and the decision to find a solution to it. Design is above all a willful act, a purposeful endeavor. A designer must first document the existing conditions of a problem, define its context, and collect relevant data to be assimilated and analyzed. This is the critical phase of the design process since the nature of a solution is inexorably related to how a problem is perceived, defined, and articulated. Piet Hein, the noted Danish poet and scientist, puts it this way: “Art is solving problems that cannot be formulated before they have been solved. The shaping of the question is part of the answer.” Designers inevitably and instinctively prefigure solutions to the problems they are confronted with, but the depth and range of their design vocabulary influence both their perception of a question and the shaping of its answer. If one’s understanding of a design language is limited, then the range of possible solutions to a problem will also be limited. This book focuses, therefore, on broadening and enriching a vocabulary of design through the study of its essential elements and principles and the exploration of a wide array of solutions to architectural problems developed over the course of human history. As an art, architecture is more than satisfying the purely functional requirements of a building program. Fundamentally, the physical manifestations of architecture accommodate human activity. However, the arrangement and ordering of forms and spaces also determine how architecture might promote endeavors, elicit responses, and communicate meaning. So while this study focuses on formal and spatial ideas, it is not intended to diminish the importance of the social, political, or economic aspects of architecture. Form and space are presented not as ends in themselves but as means to solve a problem in response to conditions of function, purpose, and context—that is, architecturally. The analogy may be made that one must know and understand the alphabet before words can be formed and a vocabulary developed; one must understand the rules of grammar and syntax before sentences can be constructed; one must understand the principles of composition before essays, novels, and the like can be written. Once these elements are understood, one can write poignantly or with force, call for peace or incite to riot, comment on trivia or speak with insight and meaning. In a similar way, it might be appropriate to be able to recognize the basic elements of form and space and understand how they can be manipulated and organized in the development of a design concept, before addressing the more vital issue of meaning in architecture. INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION / IX
INTRODUCTION In order to place this study in proper context,the following is an overview of the In all cases,however,these elements and systems should be interrelated basic elements.systems.and orders that constitute a work of architecture.All to form an integrated whole having a unifying or coherent structure. of these constituents can be perceived and experienced.Some may be readily Architectural order is created when the organization of parts makes visible apparent while others are more obscure to our intellect and senses.Some may their relationships to each other and the structure as a whole.When these dominate while others play a secondary role in a building's organization.Some relationships are perceived as mutually reinforcing and contributing to the may convey images and meaning while others serve as qualifiers or modifiers of singular nature of the whole,then a conceptual order exists-an order that these messages. may well be more enduring than transient perceptual visions. Architectural Systems The Architecture of Space organizational pattern,relationships,clarity,hierarchy Structure formal image and spatial definition Endosure qualities of shape.coor texture,scale.proportion qualities of surfaces,edges,and openings Experienced through Movement in approach and entry Space-Time path configuration and access ·sequence of spaces .light,view,touch,sound,and smell Achieved by means of Technology structure and enclosure .environmental protection and comfort health,safety,and welfare .durability and sustainability Accommodating a Program user requirements,needs,aspirations sociocultural factors ·economic factors ·legal constraints .historical tradition and precedents Compatible with its Context ·site and environment .climate:sun,wind,temperature,precipitation .geography:soils,topography.vegetation,water .sensory and cultural characteristics of the place X /ARCHITECTURE:FORM,SPACE,ORDER
X / ARCHITECTURE: FORM, SPACE, & ORDER t PSHBOJ[BUJPOBMQBUUFSO SFMBUJPOTIJQT DMBSJUZ IJFSBSDIZ t GPSNBMJNBHFBOETQBUJBMEFGJOJUJPO t RVBMJUJFTPGTIBQF DPMPS UFYUVSF TDBMF QSPQPSUJPO t RVBMJUJFTPGTVSGBDFT FEHFT BOEPQFOJOHT t BQQSPBDIBOEFOUSZ t QBUIDPOGJHVSBUJPOBOEBDDFTT t TFRVFODFPGTQBDFT t MJHIU WJFX UPVDI TPVOE BOETNFMM t TUSVDUVSFBOEFODMPTVSF t FOWJSPONFOUBMQSPUFDUJPOBOEDPNGPSU t IFBMUI TBGFUZ BOEXFMGBSF t EVSBCJMJUZBOETVTUBJOBCJMJUZ t VTFSSFRVJSFNFOUT OFFET BTQJSBUJPOT t TPDJPDVMUVSBMGBDUPST t FDPOPNJDGBDUPST t MFHBMDPOTUSBJOUT t IJTUPSJDBMUSBEJUJPOBOEQSFDFEFOUT t TJUFBOEFOWJSPONFOU t DMJNBUFTVO XJOE UFNQFSBUVSF QSFDJQJUBUJPO t HFPHSBQIZTPJMT UPQPHSBQIZ WFHFUBUJPO XBUFS t TFOTPSZBOEDVMUVSBMDIBSBDUFSJTUJDTPGUIFQMBDF In order to place this study in proper context, the following is an overview of the basic elements, systems, and orders that constitute a work of architecture. All of these constituents can be perceived and experienced. Some may be readily apparent while others are more obscure to our intellect and senses. Some may dominate while others play a secondary role in a building’s organization. Some may convey images and meaning while others serve as qualifiers or modifiers of these messages. In all cases, however, these elements and systems should be interrelated to form an integrated whole having a unifying or coherent structure. Architectural order is created when the organization of parts makes visible their relationships to each other and the structure as a whole. When these relationships are perceived as mutually reinforcing and contributing to the singular nature of the whole, then a conceptual order exists—an order that may well be more enduring than transient perceptual visions. Architectural Systems INTRODUCTION The Architecture of Space Structure Enclosure Experienced through Movement in Space-Time Achieved by means of Technology Accommodating a Program Compatible with its Context
INTRODUCTION ...Orders Physica Form and Space Systems and organizations of ·solids and voids ·5pace interior and exterior ·structure enclosure ·machines Perceptual Sensory perception and recognition of the physical approach and departure elements by experiencing them sequentially in time ·entry and egress movement through the order of spaces functioning of and activities within spaces qualities of light,color,texture.view,and sound Conceptual Comprehension of the ordered or disordered ·images relationships among a building's elements and systems. ·patterns and responding to the meanings they evoke ·5ign5 ·5 ymbol5 ·context SPACE FUNCTION FORM TECHNICS* Technics refers to the theory.principles,or study of an art ora process. INTRODUCTION XI
Systems and organizations of t TQBDF t TUSVDUVSF t FODMPTVSF t NBDIJOFT t BQQSPBDIBOEEFQBSUVSF t FOUSZBOEFHSFTT t NPWFNFOUUISPVHIUIFPSEFSPGTQBDFT t GVODUJPOJOHPGBOEBDUJWJUJFTXJUIJOTQBDFT t RVBMJUJFTPGMJHIU DPMPS UFYUVSF WJFX BOETPVOE t JNBHFT t QBUUFSOT t TJHOT t TZNCPMT t DPOUFYU SPACE FUNCTION FORM TECHNICS* …& Orders INTRODUCTION / XI INTRODUCTION Physical Form and Space t TPMJETBOEWPJET t JOUFSJPSBOEFYUFSJPS Perceptual Sensory perception and recognition of the physical elements by experiencing them sequentially in time Conceptual Comprehension of the ordered or disordered relationships among a building’s elements and systems, and responding to the meanings they evoke * Technics refers to the theory, principles, or study of an art or a process
INTRODUCTION Spatial System Structural System The three-dimensional integration of program elements and spaces Agrid of columns supports horizontal beams and slabs. accommodates the multiple functions and relationships of a house. The cantilever acknowledges the direction of approach along the longitudinal axis. Enclosure System Four exterior wall planes define a rectangular volume that contains the program elements and spaces. Villa Savoye,Poissy,east of Paris,1923-31,Le Corbusier This graphic analysis ilustrates the way architecture embodies the harmonious integration of interacting and interrelated parts into a complex and unified whole. XII /ARCHITECTURE:FORM,SPACE,ORDER
XII / ARCHITECTURE: FORM, SPACE, & ORDER Spatial System t 5IFUISFFEJNFOTJPOBMJOUFHSBUJPOPGQSPHSBNFMFNFOUTBOETQBDFT accommodates the multiple functions and relationships of a house. Villa Savoye, Poissy, east of Paris, 1923–31, Le Corbusier Structural System t "HSJEPGDPMVNOTTVQQPSUTIPSJ[POUBMCFBNTBOETMBCT t 5IFDBOUJMFWFSBDLOPXMFEHFTUIFEJSFDUJPOPGBQQSPBDIBMPOHUIF longitudinal axis. Enclosure System t 'PVSFYUFSJPSXBMMQMBOFTEFGJOFBSFDUBOHVMBSWPMVNFUIBUDPOUBJOT the program elements and spaces. This graphic analysis illustrates the way architecture embodies the harmonious integration of interacting and interrelated parts into a complex and unified whole. INTRODUCTION