ENCYCLOPEDIA OF MATERIALS CHARACTERIZATION C.Richard Brundle Charles A.Evans,Ir Shaun Wilson MATERIALS CHARACTERIZATION SERIES SURFACES,INTERFACES.THIN FILMS
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF MATERIALS CHARACTERIZATION C. Richard Brundle Charles A. Evans, Jr. Shaun Wilson a MAT E R I A LS CHARACTER SERIES SURFACES, INTERFACES, THIN FILMS +
This bookwasacquired.developed,and produced by Manning Publications Co. Copyright1992 by Butterworth-Heinemann,a division of Reed Publishing (USA)Ine. All rights reserved. No part of this publicaion may be reproduced,d ineiayeoramied, aphotocopyingor otherwise, en pern id-free papet,andebthated. 2bfmahhanceaioeha,aiehcatinlnvcRhrdBnandk,CrthAgn Techno gy)Testing.1.Evans.CharlesA.II.Wilson,Shaun.III.Title.IV.Series Stoncham,MA02180 ich.CT06830 109876543 Printed in the United States of America
This book was acquired, developed, and produced by Manning Publications Co. Copyright Q 1992 by Butxetworch-Heinemann, a division of Reed Publishing CUSA) Inc Au rights rad No parc of this publicarion may be reproduced, scored in a retried system, or transmitted, in any form or by means. electronic, mechanical, photocopying, or orherwise, without prior written permission of the publisher. Recognizing the importance of preserving what has been written, it is the policy of Butterworth-Heinemann and of Manning to have the books they publish printed on acid-free paper, and we exert our best &m to that end. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Brundle, C. R. Encyclopedia of materials characterization: surfaces, interfaces, thin films/C. Richard Brundle, Charles A. Evans, Jr., Sham Wilson. p. un.-(Materials characterization series) Indudes bibliographical refrrenoa and index. ISBN CL7506-9168-9 1. Surfaces (Tedmoology)-Tes~ I. Evans, Charlak 11. Wilson, Shaun. 111. Title. IV. Series. TA418.7.B73 I992 92-14999 620’.4Pdc20 CIP Butterworth-Heinemann 80 Montvale Avenue Stoneham, MA02180 Manning Publications Co. 3 his Street Greenwich, CT 06830 109 8 7 6 5 4 3 Printed in the Unired States ofAmerica
Contents Preface to Series ix Preface x Acronyms Glossary xi Contributors xvi INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARIES 1.0 Introduction I Technique Summaries 7-56 IMAGING TECHNIQUES (MICROSCOPY) 2.0 Introduction 57 2.1 Light Microscopy 60 22 Scanning Electron Microscopy,SEM 7 2.3 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy and Scanning Force Microscopy,STM and SFM 8s 2.4 Transmission Electron Microscopy.TEM99 ELECTRON BEAM INSTRUMENTS 3.0 Introduction 117 3.1 Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy,EDS 120 3.2 Electron Energy-Loss Spectroscopy in the Transmission Electron ope.EELS 135 3.3 Cathodoluminescence,CL 149 3.4 Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy,STEM 161 3.5 Electron Probe X-Ray Microanalysis,EPMA 175
Contents Preface to Series ix Preface x Acronyms Glossary xi Contributors xvi INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARIES 1.0 Introduction I Technique Summaries 7-56 IMAGING TECHNIQUES (MICROSCOPY) 2.0 Introduction 57 2.1 Light Microscopy 60 2.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy, SEM 70 2.3 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy and 2.4 Transmission Electron Microscopy, TEM 99 Scanning Force Microscopy, STM and SFM 85 ELECTRON BEAM INSTRUMENTS 3.0 Introduction 117 3.1 Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy, EDS 120 3.2 Electron Energy-Loss Spectroscopy in the Transmission Electron Microscope, EELS 135 3.3 Cathodoluminescence, CL 149 3.4 Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy, STEM 161 3.5 Electron Probe X-Ray Microanalysis, EPMA 175 V
STRUCTURE DETERMINATION BY DIFFRACTION AND SCATTERING 4.0 Introduction 193 4.1 X-Ray Diffraction, XRD 198 4.2 Extended X-Ray Absorption Fine Structure,EXAFS 214 43 Surface Extended X-Ray Absorption Fine Structure and Near Edge X-Ray Absorption Fine Strucrure,SEXAFS/NEXAFS 227 4.4 X-Ray Photoelectron and Auger Electron Diffraction,XPD and AED 240 4.5 Low-Energy Electron Diffraction,LEED 252 4.6 Reflection High-Energy Electron Diffraction,RHEED 264 ELECTRON EMISSION SPECTROSCOPIES 5.0 Introduction 279 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy,XPS 282 62 Ultraviolet Photoelectron Spectroscopy,UPS3 5.3 Auger Electron Spectroscopy,AES 3I0 5.4 Reflected Electron Energy-loss Spectroscopy, REELS 324 X-RAY EMISSION TECHNIQUES 6.0 Introduction 335 6.1 X-Ray Fluorescence.XRF 338 62 Total Reflection X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis,TXRF 349 6.3 Particle-Induced X-Ray Emission,PIXE 357 VISIBLE/UV EMISSION,REFLECTION,AND ABSORPTION 7.0 Introduction 37 7.1 Photoluminescence,PL 373 12 Modulation Spectroscopy 385 3 Variable Angle Spectroscopic Ellipsometry,VASE 401 VIBRATIONAL SPECTROSCOPIES AND NMR 8.0 Introduction 413 8.1 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy,FTIR 416 8.2 Raman Spectroscopy 428 8.3 High-Resolution Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy,HREELS 442 8.4 Solid State Nucear Magnetic Resonance,NMR ，46o vi Contents
STRUCTURE DETERMINATION BY DIFFRACTION AND SCATTERING 4.0 Introduction 193 4.1 X-Ray Diffraction, XRD 198 4.2 Extended X-Ray Absorption Fine Structure, EXAFS 214 4.3 Su&ce Extended X-Ray Absorption Fine Structure and Near Edge X-Ray Absorption Fine Structure, SEXAFS/NEXAFS Auger Electron Difiction, XPD and AED 227 4.4 X-Ray Photoelectron and 4.5 Low-Energy Electron Diffraction, LEED 252 4.6 Reflection High-Energy Electron Diffraction, WEED 264 240 ELECTRON EMISSION SPECTROSCOPIES 5.0 Introduction 279 5.1 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy, XPS 282 5.2 Ultraviolet Photoelectron Spectroscopy, UPS 300 5.3 Auger Electron Spectroscopy, AES 310 5.4 Reflected Electron Energy-loss Spectroscopy, REELS 324 X-RAY EMISION TECHNIQUES 6.0 Introduction 335 6.1 X-Ray Fluorescence, XRF 338 6.2 Total Reflection X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis, TXRF 349 6.3 Particle-Induced X-Ray Emission, PIXE 357 VISIBLE/W EMISSION, REFLECTION, AND ABSORPTION 7.0 Introduction 371 7.1 Photoluminescence, PL 373 7.2 Modulation Spectroscopy 385 7.3 Variable Angle Spectroscopic Ellipsometry, VASE 401 VIBRATIONAL SPECTROSCOPIES AND NMR 8.0 Introduction 413 8.1 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy, FTIR 416 8.2 RamanSpectroscopy 428 8.3 High-Resolution Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy, HREELS 4-42 8.4 Solid State Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, NMR 460 vi Contents
ION SCATTERING TECHNIQUES 9.0 Introduction 473 91 Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry,RBS 476 9.2 Elastic Recoil Spectrometry,ERS488 93 Medium-Energy on Scattering with Channeling and Blocking,MEIS 502 9.4 Ion Scattering Spectroscopy,ISS 514 MASS AND OPTICAL SPECTROSCOPIES 10.0 Introduction 527 10.1 Dynamic Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry,Dynamic SIMS 532 10.2 Static Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry,Static SIMS 549 10.3 Surface Analysis by Laser lonization,SALI 559 10.4 Sputtered Neutral Mass Spectrometry,SNMS 57I 10.5 Laser Ionization Mass Spectrometry,LIMS 586 10.6 Spark Source Mass Spectrometry,SSMS 598 10.7 Glow-Discharge Mass Spectrometry,GDMS 609 10.8 Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry,ICPMS 624 10.9 Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectroscopy,ICP-OES 633 NEUTRON AND NUCLEAR TECHNIQUES 11.0 Introduction 645 11.1 Neutron Diffraction 648 11.2 Neutron Reflectivity 660 11.3 Neutron Activation Analysis,NAA 67I 11.4 Nuclear Reaction Analysis,NRA 680 PHYSICAL AND MAGNETIC PROPERTIES 12.0 Introduction 695 12.1 Surface Roughness: ent,Form Sputtering.Impact on Depth Profiling 698 12.2 Optical Scatterometry 711 12.3 Magneto-Optic Kerr Rotation,MOKE 723 12.4 Phys sical and Chemical Adsorption Measurement of Solid Surface Areas 736 Index 745 Contents vil
ION SCATTERING TECHNIQUFS 9.0 Introduction 473 9.1 Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry, RBS 476 9.2 Elastic Recoil Spectrometry, ERS 488 9.3 Medium-Energy Ion Scattering with Channeling and Blocking, MEIS 502 9.4 Ion scattering Spectroscopy, Iss 514 MASS AND OPTICAL SPECTROSCOPIES 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.8 10.9 Introduction 527 Dynamic Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry, Dynamic SIMS Static Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry, Static SIMS 549 Surfice Analysis by her Ionization, SAL1 Sputtered Neutral Mass Spectrometry, SNMS Laser Ionization Mass Spectrometry, LIMS Spark Source Mass Spectrometry, SSMS 598 Glow-Discharge Mass Spectrometry, GDMS 609 Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry, ICPMS Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectroscopy, ICP-OES 633 532 559 586 571 624 NEUTRONANDNUCLEARTECHNIQUES 1'1.0 Introduction 645 1 1 .I Neutron Diffraction 648 11.2 Neutron Reflectivity 660 11.3 Neutron Activation Analysis, NAA 671 11.4 Nuclear Reaction Analysis, NRA 680 PHYSICAL AND MAGNETIC PROPERTIES 12.0 Introduction 695 12.1 Surface Roughness: Measurement, Formation by Sputtering, Impact on Depth Profiling 698 12.2 Optical Scatterometry 711 12.3 Magneto-optic Kerr Rotation, MOJSE 723 12.4 Physical and Chemical Adsorption Measurement of Solid Surface Areas 736 Contents vii