204 Food product development Food choice can be broken down to the pattern of purchase or rejection of a product, the needs and wants underlying this choice, the psychological attitudes underlying the needs and wants, the effects of the society and the culture. Some important factors for the individual consumer are of ethnicity and social involvement with food habitual behaviour food stereotypes, expectations, likes/dislikes 5.2.1 Perceptions of ethnicity and social group Individuals perceptions of ethnicity and social group, and the relation of these perceptions to the environment and the food, is a basic consumer variable. The term 'situational ethnicity'is used to show that there can be a change in food choice according to the environment except for strongly held taboos. In Box 5.1 the changes occurring in food eating in China are described to illustrate how the change in the environment changes the food choice. Changing the proportion of ingredients but in particular changing the spicing and sauces and the ethnic name can vary a products ethnicity. This can be used for simul taneous food product development for domestic and export markets. For example, Thai and Australian consumers examined 18 Thai and 18 Australian meat products to determine if meat products acceptable in both Thailand and Australia could be developed(Nantachai et al, 1992). They were asked to identify the context in which each product was used to determine common perceptions of meat products. The common dimension for Australians and Thais was social occasions. Two groups of products satisfied social occasions for both the Australians and Thais fermented sausages, such as Australian salami pepperoni and Thai nam, and emulsified sausages such as Australian cabanossi and Thai frankfurter 5.2.2 Involvement Involvement, the importance of the food to the individual, can also affect their food choice; for example one consumer may have tea just as a warm drink, and will buy the cheapest tea; another person is very interested in the flavour and will buy on type and brand. There are consumers who are happy with their present range of foods with only an occasional change; other consumers are not strongly involved with the present products and are seeking variety. Much of food product development in the food industry in the 20th century was based on the premise that people want variety, but some products have lasted over 80 years. There is a need for more research to confirm the level of consumer involvement in different types of food products, and the need for variety in all product areas
Food choice can be broken down to the pattern of purchase or rejection of a product, the needs and wants underlying this choice, the psychological attitudes underlying the needs and wants, the effects of the society and the culture. Some important factors for the individual consumer are: • perception of ethnicity and social group; • involvement with food; • habitual behaviour; • food stereotypes, expectations, likes/dislikes. 5.2.1 Perceptions of ethnicity and social group Individuals’ perceptions of ethnicity and social group, and the relation of these perceptions to the environment and the food, is a basic consumer variable. The term ‘situational ethnicity’ is used to show that there can be a change in food choice according to the environment except for strongly held taboos. In Box 5.1, the changes occurring in food eating in China are described to illustrate how the change in the environment changes the food choice. Changing the proportion of ingredients but in particular changing the spicing and sauces and the ethnic name can vary a product’s ethnicity. This can be used for simultaneous food product development for domestic and export markets. For example, Thai and Australian consumers examined 18 Thai and 18 Australian meat products to determine if meat products acceptable in both Thailand and Australia could be developed (Nantachai et al., 1992). They were asked to identify the context in which each product was used to determine common perceptions of meat products. The common dimension for Australians and Thais was ‘social occasions’. Two groups of products satisfied social occasions for both the Australians and Thais – fermented sausages, such as Australian salami, pepperoni and Thai nam, and emulsified sausages such as Australian cabanossi and Thai frankfurter. 5.2.2 Involvement Involvement, the importance of the food to the individual, can also affect their food choice; for example one consumer may have tea just as a warm drink, and will buy the cheapest tea; another person is very interested in the flavour and will buy on type and brand. There are consumers who are happy with their present range of foods with only an occasional change; other consumers are not strongly involved with the present products and are seeking variety. Much of food product development in the food industry in the 20th century was based on the premise that people want variety, but some products have lasted over 80 years. There is a need for more research to confirm the level of consumer involvement in different types of food products, and the need for variety in all product areas. 204 Food product development
The consumer in product development 205 Box 5.1 Culture and fast food in the People's Republic of China(prc) Chinese cuisine has a long history, a rich culture, and enjoys worldwide popularity. Because Chinese food takes time to prepare even when cooking time is short, most work units(danwei) serve three inexpensive, relative low- quality meals each day. With economic reform and rising living standards, it has become fashionable and affordable for average Prc consumers to consume more time-saving services and to demand food that is different in aste, culture and quality. As happened earlier in Hong Kong and Singapore demand for time-saving services is increasing faster than income. Face (mianzi, reputation, prestige obtained through one's efforts or conduct) related to tangible and intangible personal success. 'Face makes the Chinese risk-adverse and slower to accept new products, and more loyal than Westerners once brand image is established Culture can influence consumers' food choices. The Chinese diet contains more rice, noodles, chicken, pork, vegetables and fewer sweet desserts compared with the American diet of bread, beef, cheese, dairy products and sweet desserts. Therefore chicken and beef noodle fast-food restaurants are more popular in PRC than pizza and burger restaurants. Beef is scarce, and considered very nutritious in traditional Chinese medicine. The older a person Is, the more difficult it is to adapt to the new diet. Therefore older PRC consumers eat burgers for nutrition, and younger consumers eat burgers for taste. Younger persons are more likely to try new foods. Many young, one- hild families in urban Beijing take children to McDonald's about once a week. Young people seek novelty and material progress. Although they do not like pizza, Chinese teens sit at Pizza Hut to be seen, older Chinese like low-fat food, all go to McDonald's to be served, enjoy friends and listen to Source: From Anderson and He, 1999, by permission of Haworth Press. 5.2.3 Habitual behaviour Habitual behaviour is common in food buying- people go to the same supermarket, the same restaurant; shop in the same way -only buying specials, buying at the same time, buying the same brand. Over the years there are trends in buying foods, sometimes because of the availability of new products, and ometimes because of changes in life style. It is important to follow developing trends, for example the sales of frozen foods changed over 15 years in the UK ith a gradual decrease in the pioneering frozen products, peas and beans, and the growth of potato products and convenience foods as shown in Table 5.3 These trends of course are caused by many factors such as availability, life- tyle changes but they do show how consumers change their habits gradually
5.2.3 Habitual behaviour Habitual behaviour is common in food buying – people go to the same supermarket, the same restaurant; shop in the same way – only buying specials, buying at the same time, buying the same brand. Over the years there are trends in buying foods, sometimes because of the availability of new products, and sometimes because of changes in life style. It is important to follow developing trends; for example the sales of frozen foods changed over 15 years in the UK with a gradual decrease in the pioneering frozen products, peas and beans, and the growth of potato products and convenience foods as shown in Table 5.3. These trends of course are caused by many factors such as availability, lifestyle changes; but they do show how consumers change their habits gradually Box 5.1 Culture and fast food in the People’s Republic of China (PRC) Chinese cuisine has a long history, a rich culture, and enjoys worldwide popularity. Because Chinese food takes time to prepare even when cooking time is short, most work units (danwei) serve three inexpensive, relative lowquality meals each day. With economic reform and rising living standards, it has become fashionable and affordable for average PRC consumers to consume more time-saving services and to demand food that is different in taste, culture and quality. As happened earlier in Hong Kong and Singapore, demand for time-saving services is increasing faster than income. ‘Face’ (‘mianzi’, reputation, prestige obtained through one’s efforts or conduct) is related to tangible and intangible personal success. ‘Face’ makes the Chinese risk-adverse and slower to accept new products, and more loyal than Westerners once brand image is established. Culture can influence consumers’ food choices. The Chinese diet contains more rice, noodles, chicken, pork, vegetables and fewer sweet desserts compared with the American diet of bread, beef, cheese, dairy products and sweet desserts. Therefore, chicken and beef noodle fast-food restaurants are more popular in PRC than pizza and burger restaurants. Beef is scarce, and considered very nutritious in traditional Chinese medicine. The older a person is, the more difficult it is to adapt to the new diet. Therefore older PRC consumers eat burgers for nutrition, and younger consumers eat burgers for taste. Younger persons are more likely to try new foods. Many young, onechild families in urban Beijing take children to McDonald’s about once a week. Young people seek novelty and material progress. Although they do not like pizza, Chinese teens sit at Pizza Hut to be seen, older Chinese like low-fat food; all go to McDonald’s to be served, enjoy friends and listen to music. Source: From Anderson and He, 1999, by permission of Haworth Press. The consumer in product development 205
206 Food product development Table 5.3 Frozen food consumption in the UK 1974-1989 ounce per person per week Convenience meats Convenience fish products 0.68 1.29 0.44 Chips/potato products 0.48 0. Fruit/fruit products 2692609 Convenience cereal products 0.19 0.44 Source: From Consumer Behaviour in the Food Industry by J. Bareham, 1995. Reprinted by over time in the types of food they buy. These trends, for example the buying of frozen potato products instead of fresh potatoes, have occurred in many Western countries such as the usa. australia and New zealand habits in food choice do change and the important thing in new product development is to identify what causes them to change-poor products, boredom, new foods which better satisfy consumer needs and wants or new information 5.2.4 Food stereotypes Food stereotypes, expectations and liking/disliking, are very important personal factors in food choice. Imagine the surprise on an aircraft when a snack of yoghurt, fresh fruit and muesli is served- it seems wrong because the stereotype for air travel food is ' not fresh and over-processed. Is your product a stereotype? The important thing in new product development is to break the stereotype and tell the consumer the new product is different, just as British Airways did with its new healthy menu. Consumers also have an expectation of the food. If the actual food is in the direction of their expectation, then the expectation is reinforced for the next time they consider the food-if they expect it to be very sweet which they dislike, and it is very sweet, then they will dislike it more. If they expect the drink to be refreshing and it is, then this will reinforce their expectation for the future. Information is important in expectation- when soups are branded for sensory testing, consumers will have expectations for different brands and their scores will vary from their scores if the soups were not identified. These expectations are an important consideration in product for product design And of course there is the basic liking/disliking of produc,a development, and emphasis in developing the total product concept is a ba people have their preferences and it has long been a part of food product development to identify the likes/dislikes of the target consumers
over time in the types of food they buy. These trends, for example the buying of frozen potato products instead of fresh potatoes, have occurred in many Western countries such as the USA, Australia and New Zealand. Habits in food choice do change and the important thing in new product development is to identify what causes them to change – poor products, boredom, new foods which better satisfy consumer needs and wants or new information. 5.2.4 Food stereotypes Food stereotypes, expectations and liking/disliking, are very important personal factors in food choice. Imagine the surprise on an aircraft when a snack of yoghurt, fresh fruit and muesli is served – it seems wrong because the stereotype for air travel food is ‘not fresh and over-processed’. Is your product a stereotype? The important thing in new product development is to break the stereotype and tell the consumer the new product is different, just as British Airways did with its new healthy menu. Consumers also have an expectation of the food. If the actual food is in the direction of their expectation, then the expectation is reinforced for the next time they consider the food – if they expect it to be very sweet which they dislike, and it is very sweet, then they will dislike it more. If they expect the drink to be refreshing and it is, then this will reinforce their expectation for the future. Information is important in expectation – when soups are branded for sensory testing, consumers will have expectations for different brands and their scores will vary from their scores if the soups were not identified. These expectations are an important consideration in product development, and emphasis in developing the total product concept is a basis for product design. And of course there is the basic liking/disliking of products – people have their preferences and it has long been a part of food product development to identify the likes/dislikes of the target consumers. Table 5.3 Frozen food consumption in the UK 1974–1989 1974 1979 1984 1989 ounce per person per week* Convenience meats 0.73 1.31 1.85 2.26 Convenience fish products 0.68 0.81 1.02 1.02 Peas 1.29 1.75 1.70 1.63 Beans 0.44 0.56 0.47 0.49 Chips/potato products 0.48 0.80 1.87 2.82 Other vegetables 0.45 1.01 1.15 1.76 Fruit/fruit products 0.05 0.08 0.03 0.03 Convenience cereal products 0.19 0.44 0.78 1.19 * 1 ounce 28 g. Source: From Consumer Behaviour in the Food Industry by J. Bareham, 1995. Reprinted by permission of Butterworth Heinemann. 206 Food product development
The consumer in product development 207 hink break A dairy company has developed a line of new nutriceutical products, a range of biologically active dairy-based drinks, and wishes to market through supermarkets, where it is already selling dairy products 1. Discuss the consumer needs and problems that could be met by these new products 2. Discuss what prior experience and previous practice would lead to easy acceptance of the new products 3. What are the types of socio-economic conditions and also social norms that would help the consumers to accept these products? 4. From the knowledge that you have found in 1, 2 and 3, describe the consumers for these products- their food expectations and liking/disliking. Also discuss the food stereotypes that they could have for yoghurts and how the new products relate to these stereotypes 5. Discuss how you would design the packaging and the in-store promotion to give a total product concept for the new products so that the consumers have the knowledge to trial the products 6. Where would you position the new products in the supermarket and display them to make the consumers aware of the products? 5.3 Consumers'avoidance and acceptance of new products Consumers tend to avoid new foods-a phenomenon called food neophobia. This is the reason for free samples or in-store tasting of new products; and also a great deal of information with new products. In a Swedish study(Koivisto-Hursti and Sjoden, 1997), fathers avoided new foods more than mothers, and children more than their parents, generally younger children avoided new foods more than older children. Neophobia is related to the marketing classification of consumers in relation to new products as adopters and non-adopters, or innovators, influentials, ollowers and diehards. Innovativeness is the degree that a consumer will try products, that is how venturesome they are and how prepared they are to take risks. They recognise a perceived risk in the new product as well as the product attributes and benefits that relate to their needs and problems. Other consumer conditions affecting adoption of new products are previous practice and prior experience with new products. Prior experience has an effect on new food choice eading to early acceptance or rejection of the new product. Some people may take the risk of not liking the food or even of safety, and try the new food; other people wait to hear reports on the product. Some consumers are actively looking for new foods and try many new products. In product development, it is important to lentify the different types of consumers and to provide the knowledge in the tota product concept to overcome their perceptions of risk
5.3 Consumers’ avoidance and acceptance of new products Consumers tend to avoid new foods – a phenomenon called food neophobia. This is the reason for free samples or in-store tasting of new products; and also a great deal of information with new products. In a Swedish study (Koivisto-Hursti and Sjoden, 1997), fathers avoided new foods more than mothers, and children more than their parents, generally younger children avoided new foods more than older children. Neophobia is related to the marketing classification of consumers in relation to new products as adopters and non-adopters, or innovators, influentials, followers and diehards. Innovativeness is the degree that a consumer will try new products, that is how venturesome they are and how prepared they are to take risks. They recognise a perceived risk in the new product as well as the product attributes and benefits that relate to their needs and problems. Other consumer conditions affecting adoption of new products are previous practice and prior experience with new products. Prior experience has an effect on new food choice, leading to early acceptance or rejection of the new product. Some people may take the risk of not liking the food or even of safety, and try the new food; other people wait to hear reports on the product. Some consumers are actively looking for new foods and try many new products. In product development, it is important to identify the different types of consumers and to provide the knowledge in the total product concept to overcome their perceptions of risks. Think break A dairy company has developed a line of new nutriceutical products, a range of biologically active dairy-based drinks, and wishes to market through supermarkets, where it is already selling dairy products. 1. Discuss the consumer needs and problems that could be met by these new products. 2. Discuss what prior experience and previous practice would lead to easy acceptance of the new products. 3. What are the types of socio-economic conditions and also social norms that would help the consumers to accept these products? 4. From the knowledge that you have found in 1, 2 and 3, describe the consumers for these products – their food expectations and liking/disliking. Also discuss the food stereotypes that they could have for yoghurts and how the new products relate to these stereotypes. 5. Discuss how you would design the packaging and the in-store promotion to give a total product concept for the new products so that the consumers have the knowledge to trial the products. 6. Where would you position the new products in the supermarket and display them to make the consumers aware of the products? The consumer in product development 207
208 Food product development Communication channels Knowledge Persuasion Confim haracteristics characteristics antage Later adoption Fig 5.5 Rogers' model of the innovation-decision process.(Reprinted with perm of the Free Press, a Division of Simon and Schuster, Inc, from Diffusion of Innon Fourth Edition by Everett M. Rogers. Copyright o 1995 Everett M. Rogers. Copyri 1962, 1971, 1983 by the Free Press. Consumers' prior conditions are an important basis for the diffusion of new products through the target market. If the company understands the different types of people and how they can be encouraged to try new products, then it can plan the product launch to give the optimum diffusion of the new product through the target market. The stages in the adoption process can be summarised as(1)awareness,(2) interest,(3)evaluation,(4) trial and (5)adoption or rejection (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2000). A more detailed innovation-decision process(Rogers, 1983)is summarised in Fig 5.5 The total product concept can be designed to give controlled diffusion by understanding the diffusion variables(Engel et al, 1995; Schiffman and Kanuk 2000 Innovation type: continuous innovation, dynamically continuous innovation discontinuous innovation; related to the increasing level of disruption of the consumers'behaviour patterns Characteristics of the total product concept to the consumer: relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, observability (a) Relative advantage is the perceived superiority to existing products (b) Compatibility is the relation to present needs, values and practices (c) Complexity is the difficulty in understanding and using the product (d) Trialability is the degree to which the product can be tried on a limited (e) Observability is the ease that the product and its benefits can be Communication: from marketer to consumer through media, public relations, opinion leaders, sales promotion, shows, Internet; and from consumer to consumer by word of mouth Time for adoption: the time for problem recognition, knowledge, persuasion, implementation(buy and use), confirmation and re-buy Social system: ethnic, social, education, literacy, upward social mobility, commercial. size of units. technological level
Consumers’ prior conditions are an important basis for the diffusion of new products through the target market. If the company understands the different types of people and how they can be encouraged to try new products, then it can plan the product launch to give the optimum diffusion of the new product through the target market. The stages in the adoption process can be summarised as (1) awareness, (2) interest, (3) evaluation, (4) trial and (5) adoption or rejection (Schiffman and Kanuk, 2000). A more detailed innovation–decision process (Rogers, 1983) is summarised in Fig. 5.5. The total product concept can be designed to give controlled diffusion by understanding the diffusion variables (Engel et al., 1995; Schiffman and Kanuk, 2000): • Innovation type: continuous innovation, dynamically continuous innovation, discontinuous innovation; related to the increasing level of disruption of the consumers’ behaviour patterns. • Characteristics of the total product concept to the consumer: relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, observability. (a) Relative advantage is the perceived superiority to existing products. (b) Compatibility is the relation to present needs, values and practices. (c) Complexity is the difficulty in understanding and using the product. (d) Trialability is the degree to which the product can be tried on a limited basis. (e) Observability is the ease that the product and its benefits can be observed, imagined or described. • Communication: from marketer to consumer through media, public relations, opinion leaders, sales promotion, shows, Internet; and from consumer to consumer by word of mouth. • Time for adoption: the time for problem recognition, knowledge, persuasion, implementation (buy and use), confirmation and re-buy. • Social system: ethnic, social, education, literacy, upward social mobility, commercial, size of units, technological level. Fig. 5.5 Rogers’ model of the innovation–decision process. (Reprinted with permission of the Free Press, a Division of Simon and Schuster, Inc., from Diffusion of Innovations, Fourth Edition by Everett M. Rogers. Copyright 1995 Everett M. Rogers. Copyright 1962, 1971, 1983 by the Free Press.) 208 Food product development