Contents CHAPTER 13 THE MANAGEMENT OF DATA 491 13. 1. The Nature of the problem 13.2. Categories of Database 491 13.2.1 Landolt-Bornstein the International Critical Tables nd Their Successo 13.2.2 Crystal Structures 13.2. 3 Max Hansen and His Successors: Phase Diagram Databases 13.2.4 Other Specialised Databases and the Use of Computer 497 CHAPTER THE INSTITUTIONS AND LITERATURE OF MATERIALS SCIENCE 503 14. 1. Teaching of Materials Science and Engineering 142. Professional Societies and their Evolution 507 14.2.1 Metallurgical and Ex-Metallurgical Societies 14.2.2 Other Specialised Societies 14.2.3 Materials Societies ab initio 14.3. Journals. Texts and Reference Works 5l2 14.3.1 Broad-Spectrum Journals 512 14.3.2 The Birth of Acta Metallurgica 514 14.3.3 Specialised Journals 516 14.3.4 Textbooks and Reference Works 517 14. 4. Materials Science in Particular places 14.4.1 Cyril Smith and the Institute for the Study of Metals, Chicago 520 14.4.2 Kotaro Honda and Materials Research in Japan 14.4.3 Walter Boas and Physics of Solids in Australia 2 14. 4.4 Jorge Sabato and Materials Science in Argentina 529 14.4.5 Georgii Kurdyumov and Russian Materials Science CHAPTER 15 EPILOGUE Name Index
Contents xvii CHAPTER 13 THE MANAGEMENT OF DATA 491 13.1. 13.2. The Nature of the Problem Categories of Database 13.2.1 Landolt-B6rnstein, the International Critical Tables and Their Successors 13.2.2 Crystal Structures 13.2.3 Max Hansen and His Successors: Phase Diagram Databases 13.2.4 Other Specialised Databases and the Use of Computers 491 491 491 494 495 497 CHAPTER 14 THE INSTITUTIONS AND LITERATURE OF MATERIALS SCIENCE 503 14.1. 14.2. 14.3. 14.4. Teaching of Materials Science and Engineering Professional Societies and their Evolution 14.2.1 Metallurgical and Ex-Metallurgical Societies 14.2.2 Other Specialised Societies 14.2.3 Materials Societies ab initio Journals, Texts and Reference Works 14.3.1 Broad-Spectrum Journals 14.3.2 The Birth of Acta Metallurgica 14.3.3 Specialised Journals 14.3.4 Textbooks and Reference Works Materials Science in Particular Places 14.4.1 14.4.2 14.4.3 14.4.4 14.4.5 Cyril Smith and the Institute for the Study of Metals, Chicago Kotaro Honda and Materials Research in Japan Walter Boas and Physics of Solids in Australia Jorge Sabato and Materials Science in Argentina Georgii Kurdyumov and Russian Materials Science 503 507 508 509 509 512 512 514 516 517 519 520 523 526 529 531 CHAPTER 15 EPILOGUE 539 Name Index 543 Subject Index 559 Corrigenda 569
Chapter I Introduction 1. I. Genesis of a Concept 1. 1. 1 Materials Science and Engineering in Universities 1. 2 MSe in Industry 1. 3 The Materials Research Laboratories 1. 1.4 Precursors, Definitions and Terminology References
Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1. Genesis of a Concept 1.1.1 Materials Science and Engineering in Universities 1.1.2 MSE in Industry 1.1.3 The Materials Research Laboratories 1.1.4 Precursors, Definitions and Terminology References 3 3 8 11 13 15
Chapter 1 Introduction 1. GENESIS OF A CONCEPT Materials science emerged in USA, some time in the early 1950s. That phrase denoted a new scientific concept, born out of metallurgy, and this book is devoted to he emergence, development and consequences of that concept, in the US and elsewhere. Just who first coined the phrase is not known, but it is clear that by 1956 a number of senior research scientists had acquired the habit of using it. In 1958 nd 1959 the new concept began to stimulate two developments in America: the beginnings of a change in the nature of undergraduate and graduate teaching in universities, and a radically new way of organising academic research on materials The concept also changed the way industrial research was conceived, in a few important laboratories at leas In this introductory chapter, I shall focus on the institutional beginnings of materials science, and materials engineering as well; indeed, "MsE" became an accepted abbreviation at quite an early stage. Following an examination, in Chapter 2, of the earlier emergence of some related disciplines, the intellectual antecedents to and development of materials science in its early stages are treated in Chapter 3. The field made its first appearance in USA, and for a number of years developed only in that country. Its development elsewhere was delayed by at least a decade 1. 1. Materials science and engineering in universities Northwestern University, in Illinois not far from Chicago, was the first university to adopt materials science as part of a department title. That grew out of a department of metallurgy. Morris Fine, who was head of the department at the time, has documented the stages of the change(Fine 1990, 1994, 1996). He was a metallurgist, doing research at Bell Laboratories, when in early 1954 he was invited to visit Northwestern University to discuss plans to create a new graduate department of metallurgy there. (It is common at the leading American universities to organise departments primarily for work at graduate level, and in contrast to many other countries, the graduate students are exposed to extensive compulsory lecture courses. )In the autumn of 1954 Fine started at the University as a member of the new metallurgy department. In his letter of acceptance he had already looted his wish to start a materials science programme in cooperation with other departments
Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1. GENESIS OF A CONCEPT Materials science emerged in USA, some time in the early 1950s. That phrase denoted a new scientific concept, born out of metallurgy, and this book is devoted to the emergence, development and consequences of that concept, in the US and elsewhere. Just who first coined the phrase is not known, but it is clear that by 1956 a number of senior research scientists had acquired the habit of using it. In 1958 and 1959 the new concept began to stimulate two developments in America: the beginnings of a change in the nature of undergraduate and graduate teaching in universities, and a radically new way of organising academic research on materials. The concept also changed the way industrial research was conceived, in a few important laboratories at least. In this introductory chapter, I shall focus on the institutional beginnings of materials science, and materials engineering as well; indeed, "MSE" became an accepted abbreviation at quite an early stage. Following an examination, in Chapter 2, of the earlier emergence of some related disciplines, the intellectual antecedents to and development of materials science in its early stages are treated in Chapter 3. The field made its first appearance in USA, and for a number of years developed only in that country. Its development elsewhere was delayed by at least a decade. 1.1.1 Materials science and engineering in universities Northwestern University, in Illinois not far from Chicago, was the first university to adopt materials science as part of a department title. That grew out of a department of metallurgy. Morris Fine, who was head of the department at the time, has documented the stages of the change (Fine 1990, 1994, 1996). He was a metallurgist, doing research at Bell Laboratories, when in early 1954 he was invited to visit Northwestern University to discuss plans to create a new graduate department of metallurgy there. (It is common at the leading American universities to organise departments primarily for work at graduate level, and in contrast to many other countries, the graduate students are exposed to extensive compulsory lecture courses.) In the autumn of 1954 Fine started at the University as a member of the new metallurgy department. In his letter of acceptance he had already mooted his wish to start a materials science programme in cooperation with other departments
The Coming of Materials Science In spite of its graduate status, the new department did offer some undergraduate courses, initially for students in other departments. One of the members of faculty was Jack Frankel, who"was a disciple of Daniel Rosenthal at the University of California, Los Angeles. who had developed such a course there". frankel worked out some of the implications of this precursor by developing a broadly based undergraduate lecture course at Northwestern and, on the basis of this, writing a book entitled Principles of the Properties of Materials(Frankel 1957). Fine remarks that"this course and Jack's thinking were key elements in developing materials science at Northwestern". Various other departments accepted this as a service course. According to the minutes of a faculty meeting in May 1956, it was resolved to publish in the next University Bulletin a paragraph which included the statement:"A student who has satisfactorily completed a programme of study which includes most of these(undergraduate) courses will be adequately prepared for professional work or graduate study in metallurgy and materials science". So, from 1957, undergrad uates could undertake a broad study of materials in a course provided by what wa still a metallurgy department. In February of 1958, a memorandum was submitted to the responsible academic dean, with the title The importance of Materials Science and Engineering. One sentence in this document, which was received with favour by the dean, reads: Traditionally the field of material science(even at this early stage,the final's' in the adjective, 'materials, was toggled on and off) has developed along somewhat separate channels- solid state physics, metallurgy, polymer chemistry inorganic chemistry, mineralogy, glass and ceramic technology. Advance in materials science and technology is hampered by this artificial division of the whole science into separate parts. The document went on to emphasise"the advantages of bringing together a group of specialists in the various types of materials and allowing and encouraging their cooperation and free interchange of ideas". Clearly this proposal was approved at a high level, for at a meeting a few months later, in December 1958, the metallurgy faculty meeting resolved, nemine contradicente, to change the name of the Graduate Department of Metallurgy to Graduate Department of Materials Science, and in January 1959 the university trustees approved this change At almost the same time as the 1958 faculty meeting, the Us Presidents Science Advisory Committee referred to universities'attempts to "establish a new materials science and engineering"and claimed that they needed government help(Saras and Langford 1987, p. 23) The dean told the head of the department that various senior metallurgists around America had warned that the new department might"lose out in attracting students "by not having metallurgy'as part of its title. That issue was left open, but the department clearly did not allow itself to be intimidated and Materials Science became its unqualified name(although and Engineering was soon afterwards added
4 The Coming of Materials Science In spite of its graduate status, the new department did offer some undergraduate courses, initially for students in other departments. One of the members of faculty was Jack Frankel, who "was a disciple of Daniel Rosenthal at the University of California, Los Angeles... who had developed such a course there". Frankel worked out some of the implications of this precursor by developing a broadly based undergraduate lecture course at Northwestern and, on the basis of this, writing a book entitled Principles of the Properties of Materials (Frankel 1957). Fine remarks that "this course and Jack's thinking were key elements in developing materials science at Northwestern". Various other departments accepted this as a service course. According to the minutes of a faculty meeting in May 1956, it was resolved to publish in the next University Bulletin a paragraph which included the statement: "A student who has satisfactorily completed a programme of study which includes most of these (undergraduate) courses will be adequately prepared for professional work or graduate study in metallurgy and materials science". So, from 1957, undergraduates could undertake a broad study of materials in a course provided by what was still a metallurgy department. In February of 1958, a memorandum was submitted to the responsible academic dean, with the title The Importance of Materials Science and Engineering. One sentence in this document, which was received with favour by the dean, reads: "Traditionally the field of material science (even at this early stage, the final 's' in the adjective, 'materials', was toggled on and off) has developed along somewhat separate channels- solid state physics, metallurgy, polymer chemistry, inorganic chemistry, mineralogy, glass and ceramic technology. Advance in materials science and technology is hampered by this artificial division of the whole science into separate parts." The document went on to emphasise "the advantages of bringing together a group of specialists in the various types of materials and allowing and encouraging their cooperation and free interchange of ideas". Clearly this proposal was approved at a high level, for at a meeting a few months later, in December 1958, the metallurgy faculty meeting resolved, nemine contradicente, to change the name of the Graduate Department of Metallurgy to Graduate Department of Materials Science, and in January 1959 the university trustees approved this change. At almost the same time as the 1958 faculty meeting, the US President's Science Advisory Committee referred to universities' attempts to "establish a new materials science and engineering" and claimed that they needed government help (Psaras and Langford 1987, p. 23). The dean told the head of the department that various senior metallurgists around America had warned that the new department might "lose out in attracting students" by not having 'metallurgy' as part of its title. That issue was left open, but the department clearly did not allow itself to be intimidated and Materials Science became its unqualified name (although 'and Engineering' was soon afterwards added
to that name to"better recognise the character of the department that had been formed"). The department did not lose out. Other departments in the English speaking world have been more cautious: thus, my own department in Cambridge University began as"Metallurgy", eventually became"Metallurgy and Materials Science"and finally, greatly daring, changed to "Materials Science and Metallurgy he final step cannot be more than a few decades off. The administrators of Oxford University, true to their reputation for pernicketiness, raised their collective brows at the use of a plural noun materials, in adjectival function. The department of materials science there, incensed, changed its name simply to Department of Materials, and some other universities followed suit Fine, who as we have seen played a major part in willing the new structure into existence, had(Fine 1996)"studied solid-state quantum mechanics and statistical mechanics as a graduate student in metallurgy(at the University of Minnesota)". It is striking that, as long ago as the 1940s, it was possible for an American student of metallurgy to work on such topics in his graduate years: it must have been this early breadth of outlook that caused materials science education, which is centred on the pursuit of breadth, to begin in that part of the world From 1959, then, the department of materials science at Northwestern University taught graduates the new, broad discipline, and an undergraduate course for materials science and engineering majors followed in due course. The idea of that discipline spread fast through American universities, though some eminent metal- lurgists such as Robert F. Mehl fiercely defended the orthodox approach to physical metallurgy. Nevertheless, by 1969(Harwood 1970)some 30% of Americas many university departments of metallurgy carried a title involving combinations of he words 'materials science'and'metallurgy'. We are not told how quickly the materials engineering part of the nomenclature was brought in. By 1974, the COSMAT Report(COSMAT 1974), on the status of MSE, remarked that America had some 90"materials-designated"baccalaureate degree courses, 60 of them accredited and that 50 institutions in America by then offered graduate degrees in aterials. Today, not many departments of metallurgy remain in America; they have almost all changed to MSE. Different observers give somewhat inconsistent figures thus, Table 1. I gives statistics assembled by Lyle Schwartz in 1987, from Al erican Society of Metals sources Henceforth, 'materials science will normally be used as the name of the field with which this book is concerned; when the context makes it particularly appropiate to include 'and engineeringin the name, I shall use the abbreviation"MSE", and occasionally I shall be discussing materials engineering by itself. There were also universities which did not set up departments of materials cience but instead developed graduate programmes as an interdepartmental venture, usually but not always within a 'College of Engineering. An early
Introduction 5 to that name, to "better recognise the character of the department that had been formed"). The department did not lose out. Other departments in the Englishspeaking world have been more cautious: thus, my own department in Cambridge University began as "Metallurgy", eventually became "Metallurgy and Materials Science" and finally, greatly daring, changed to "Materials Science and Metallurgy". The final step cannot be more than a few decades off. The administrators of Oxford University, true to their reputation for pernicketiness, raised their collective eyebrows at the use of a plural noun, 'materials', in adjectival function. The department of materials science there, incensed, changed its name simply to 'Department of Materials', and some other universities followed suit. Fine, who as we have seen played a major part in willing the new structure into existence, had (Fine 1996) "studied solid-state quantum mechanics and statistical mechanics as a graduate student in metallurgy (at the University of Minnesota)". It is striking that, as long ago as the 1940s, it was possible for an American student of metallurgy to work on such topics in his graduate years: it must have been this early breadth of outlook that caused materials science education, which is centred on the pursuit of breadth, to begin in that part of the world. From 1959, then, the department of materials science at Northwestern University taught graduates the new, broad discipline, and an undergraduate course for materials science and engineering majors followed in due course. The idea of that discipline spread fast through American universities, though some eminent metallurgists such as Robert F. Mehl fiercely defended the orthodox approach to physical metallurgy. Nevertheless, by 1969 (Harwood 1970) some 30% of America's many university departments of metallurgy carried a title involving combinations of the words 'materials science' and 'metallurgy'. We are not told how quickly the 'materials engineering' part of the nomenclature was brought in. By 1974, the COSMAT Report (COSMAT 1974), on the status of MSE, remarked that America had some 90 "materials-designated" baccalaureate degree courses, ~60 of them accredited, and that ~50 institutions in America by then offered graduate degrees in materials. Today, not many departments of metallurgy remain in America; they have almost all changed to MSE. Different observers give somewhat inconsistent figures; thus, Table 1.1 gives statistics assembled by Lyle Schwartz in 1987, from American Society of Metals sources. Henceforth, 'materials science' will normally be used as the name of the field with which this book is concerned; when the context makes it particularly appropiate to include 'and engineering' in the name, I shall use the abbreviation "MSE", and occasionally I shall be discussing materials engineering by itself. There were also universities which did not set up departments of materials science but instead developed graduate programmes as an interdepartmental venture, usually but not always within a 'College of Engineering'. An early