INTRODUCTION prize, that thus both here and in all the millennial Igrim's progress of the soul of which we fable we shall fare well (621 C-D) k of the ideas pof th the bare frame- But we may fittingly add here a partia e many brilliant passages of desca eloquence dispersed through the painting, satire, They include the dramatic introduction (397- with the picture of the old age of the just man, prefiguring the conclusion of the whole work: the angry intervention of Thrasymachus(336 B f,); the altercation between Thrasymachus and Cleitophon (810): Thrasymachus perspiring under Socrates questions because it was a hot day (350 D); the worthian idea of the influence of a beautiful environ- ment on the young soul (101); the satiric description of the valetudi 门anan H07);the eloquent forecast of the fate of a society in which the guardians exploit their charges and the watchdogs become grey wolves (416-417); the satire on the lazy workman's or socialist paradise(490 D-E); the completion of the dream and the first of thre noble statements of what Emerson calls the sove reignty of ethics, the moral ideal, the anticipated Stoic principle that nothing really matters but the good will(+3-+4+; cf 591 E, 618 c); the soul that contemplates all time and all existence(486 A); the llegory of the disorderly ship and the riotous crew (488-489); the power of popular assemblies to VOL. I XXII
INTRODUCTION prize, that thus both here and in aU the millennial pilgrim's progress of the soul of which we fable we shall fare well (621 c-d). This smnmary presents only the bare framework of the ideas of the Republic. But we may fittingly add here a partial list of the many brilhant passages of description, character - painting, satire, imagery, and moral eloquence dispersed through the work. They include the dramatic introduction (327-331) with the picture of the old age of the just man, prefiguring the conclusion of the whole work ; the angry intervention of Thrasymachus (336 b ff.) ; the altercation between Thras\-machus and Cleitophon (340) ; Thrasymachus perspiring under Socrates' questions because it was a hot dav (350 d) ; the magnificent restatement of the case for injustice by Glaucon and Adeimantus (357-367) ; the Wordsworthian idea of the influence of a beautiful environ- ment on the young soul (4-01) ; the satiric description of the valetudinarian and malade imaginaire (406- 407) ; the eloquent forecast of the fate of a society in which the guardians exploit their charges and the watchdogs become grey wolves (416-417) ; the satire on the lazy workman's or sociahst paradise (420 d-e) ; the completion of the dream and the first of three noble statements of what Emerson calls the sove- reignty of ethics, the moral ideal, the anticipated Stoic principle that nothing really matters but the good vriW (443-444 ; cf. 591 E, 618 c) ; the soul that contemplates all time and all existence (486 a) ; the allegory of the disorderly ship and the riotous crew (488-489) ; the power of popular assembUes to
INTRODUCTION upt the youthful soul and all souls that have not a footing somewhere in eternity(492); the great beast that symbolizes the public (493 A-B)-not to be confused, as often happens, with the composite beast that is an allegory of the mixed nature of man the little bald tinker who marries his master of the unworthy divine philosophy(495 E); the true philosophers whose contemplation of the heavens and of eternal things leaves them no leisure for petty bickerings and jealousies (500 c-D); the sun as symbol of the dea of good (507-509); the divided line illustrating the faculties of mind and the distinction between he sciences and pure philosophy or dialectics(510- 511): the prisoners in the fire-lit cave, an allegory of the unphilosophic, unreleased mind (514-518 the entire eighth book, which Macaulay so greatl admired and especially its satire on democracy doing as it likes, the inst piration o f Matthew Arnold (562-563): Plato's evening prayer, as it has been called, anticipating all i the Freudian psychology(571); the description of the tortured tyran lied by Tacitus to the Roman emperors (578-579): the comparison of the shadows we are and the shadows we pursue with the Greeks and Trojans who fought for a phantom Helen(586 B-c); the likening of the human soul t a many-headed beast (588 c); the city of which the attern is laid up in heaven (592 A-B); the spell of Homer(607 c-D); the crowning myth of immortality (614-621) The Republic is the central and most comprehensi rork of Platos maturity. It may have been com-
INTRODUCTION corrupt the youthful soul and all souls that have not a footing somewhere in eternity (492) ; the great beast that symbolizes the public (493 a-b)—not to be confused, as often happens, with the composite beast that is an allegory of the mixed nature of man ; the little bald tinker who marries his master's daughter, an allegory of the unworthy wooers of divine philosophy (495 e) ; the true philosophers whose contemplation of the heavens and of eternal things leaves them no leisure for petty bickerings and jealousies (500 c-d) ; the sun as symbol of the idea of good (507-509) ; the divided line illustrating the faculties of mind and the distinction between the sciences and pure philosophy or dialectics (510- 511) ; the prisoners in the fire-lit cave, an allegory of the unphilosophic, unreleased mind (514-518) ; the entire eighth book, which Macaulay so greatly admired ; and especially its satire on democracy doing as it likes, the inspiration of Matthew Arnold (562-563) ; Plato's evening prayer, as it has been called, anticipating all that is true and significant in the Freudian psychology (571); the description of the tortured tyrant's soul, applied by Tacitus to the Roman emperors (578-579) ; the comparison of the shadows we are and the shadows we pursue with the Greeks and Trojans who fought for a phantom Helen (586 B-c) ; the likening of the human soul to a many-headed beast (588 c) ; the city of which the pattern is laid up in heaven (592 a-b) ; the spell of Homer (607 c-d) ; the crowning myth of immortality (614-621). The Republic is the central and most comprehensive work of Plato's maturity. It may have been com-
INTRODUCTION osed between the years $80 and S70 B.c. in the fifth or sixth decade of Plato's lifea The tradition that the earlier books were published arlier can neither be proved nor disproved. b The invention of printing has given to the idea of not bear in the Athens of the fourth century B.c. main ideas of Plato's masterpiece were doubtless familiar, not only to the students of the Academ but to the rival school of Isocrates and the literary gossips of Athens Lysis, th bonin cably earlier Charmides, Laches Unlike the no, Protagoras, Gorgias, Euthy- demus, the Republic is a positive, not to say a dog matic, exposition of Plato s thought, and not, except in the introductory first book, an idealizing dra of Plato s Thoughl, P. 7S, n. 606: Zeller, without accepting Taylor's argument ( Plato, p. g0) tha Bum学。1 ersten als demjenigen, den es in dem jetzige Charseid es n, eine Sonderexistenz zu fuhren, wie etwa der XXV
INTRODUCTION posed between the years 380 and 370 b.c. in the fifth or sixth decade of Plato's life." The tradition that the earlier books were published earlier can neither be proved nor disproved.** The invention of printing has given to the idea of " publication " a precision of meaning which it could not bear in the Athens of the fourth century b.c. Long before its formal completion the plan and the main ideas of Plato's masterpiece were doubtless familiar, not only to the students of the Academy but to the rival school of Isocrates and the literary gossips of Athens. Unlike the presumably earlier Charmides, Laches, Lysis, Euthyphro, Meno, Protagoras, Gorgias, Euthydemus, the Republic is a positive, not to say a dogmatic, exposition of Plato's thought, and not, except in the introductory first book, an idealizing dra- • Cf. Unity of Plato's Thought, p. 78, n. 606 ; Zeller, Plato*, p. 551, discusses the evidence and anticipates without accepting Taylor's argument {Plato, p. 20) that the quotation of the sentence about philosophers being kings {Rep. 473 c-D, 499 b c) by the author of the seventh Epistle proves that the Republic was already written in the year 388/7. * Cf. Aulus Gellius, Nodes Atticae, xiv. 3. 3 and other passages cited by Henri Alline, Histoire dii texte de Platon, p. 14, and Hirmer, " Entstehung und Komp. d. Plat. Rep.," Jahrbiicher fiir Phil., Suppl., N.F., vol. xxiii. p. 654 ; Wilamowitz, i. pp. 209 ff. on the " Thrasymachus " ; Hans Raeder, Platons philosophische Entwicklung, pp. 187 ff. ; Ueberweg-Praechter {Altertum), p. 217. Cf. Ivo Bruns, Das literarische Portrdt der Griechen, etc., p. 322 : " Vor allem aber bestimmt mich der Gesammtscharakter des ersten Buches, welches zu keinem anderen Zwecke geschrieben sein kann, als demjenigen, den es in dem jetzigen Zusammenhange erfiillt, namlich, als Einleitung in ein grosseres Ganzes zu dienen. Es kann nie dazu bestimmt gewesen sein, eine Sonderexistenz zu fuhren, wie etwa der (Jharmidea
INTRODUCTION matization of Socrates talks with Athenian youths nd sophists. Aristotle cites the Republic as the Politeia, a and this was the name given to it by Plato. In 527 c it is playfully called the Kai title i rep ot found in the best manu crits, and, as the peculiar use of i indicates, was probably added later But, as already said, we cannot infer from th lis that the ethical interest is subordinated to the political. b The two are inseparable. The distinction between philosophy. E separate treatises on ethics and politics, combines hem as i epi ra aveptwva peloria. He spea f ethies as a kind of politics. And though he the famil as the state. in the order of nature and the idea the state is prior. The modern sociologist who insists that the malabar returning to the standpoint of the greek ws merely In the consciously figurative language of Plato, d the idea of justice is reflected both in the individual and the state, the latter merely exhibits it on a larger scale. Or, to put it more simply, the true and only aim of the political art is to make the citizens happier by making them better. e And though good men te a Politics, 1964 b 24. The plural also occurs, ibid. s Cf. supra, p. xil, note e C/. supra, p. 号a2, Euthyphro g XXV
INTRODUCTION matization of Socrates' talks with Athenian youths and sophists. Aristotle cites the Republic as the Politeia,'^ and this was the name given to it by Plato. In 527 c it is playfully called the Kallipolis. The secondary title y] Trept ^iKaiov is not found in the best manuscripts, and, as the peculiar use of t] indicates, was probably added later. But, as already said, we cannot infer from this that the ethical interest is subordinated to the political.'' The two are inseparable. The distinction between ethics and politics tends to vanish in early as in recent philosophy. Even Aristotle, who first perhaps wrote separate treatises on ethics and politics, combines them as 7) Trept to. dvdpwTTLva </)iAoa"o</)ta. He speaks of ethics as a kind of politics. And though he regards the family and the individual as historically preceding the state, in the order of nature and the idea the state is prior. The modern sociologist who insists that the psychological and moral life of the individual apart from the social organism is an unreal abstraction is merely returning to the standpoint of the Greek who could not conceive man as a moral being outside of the polis.'^ In the consciously figurative language of Plato,<* the I idea of justice is reflected both in the individual and 1! the state, the latter merely exhibits it on a larger r scale. Or, to put it more simply, the true and only aim of the political art is to make the citizens happier by making them better.* And though good men " Politics, 1264, b 24. The plural also occurs, ibid. 1293 b 1. * Cf. supra, p. xii, note c. ' Cf. supra, p. xii, ^ 368 D-369 A. It is uncritical to press the metaphysical suggestions of this passage. « Euthydemus 291 c ff., Gorgias 621 d, Euthyphro 2 d
INTRODUCTION arise sporadically, a and are preserved by the grace of God in corrupt states, the only hope for mankind is in a state governed by philosophical wisdom(473 D), and the ideal man can attain to his full stature and live a The larger part of the Republic is in fact occupied with the ideal state, with problems of education and social control, but, as already said, we are repeatedly minded (supra, p. xii) that all these discussions are in Plato's intention subordinated to the main ethical roof that the just life is happier than the unjust 米 Ethies takes precedence in that the final appeal is to the individual will and the individual thirst for happi ness. Plato is to that extent an individualist and a utilitarian. Politics is primary in so far as man's oral life cannot exist outside of the state There are hints of the notion of an ideal state before Plato. d And the literary motif of Utopia has a long history. But it was the success of the Republic and Lars that made the portrayal of the best state the say the sole theme, of Greek political science. In Plato this was due to an idealistic tion per and a conviction of the irremediable corrup- of Greek social and political life. The place Rep. 320 B, Protag 320 A, Meno 92 D-E, Laucs 649 c, leno 99 E, Rep. 493 the wman, Politics of Arises rol, 'p 950 e su gh to refer to Alfre Salin, Platon wad die griechische Utopis, Lepes91: F927 Vortrage der Bibliothek warburg, 192+-1925, Ber
INTRODUCTION arise sporadically," and are preserved by the grace of God in corrupt states,* the only hope for mankind is in a state governed by philosophical wisdom (473 d), and the ideal man can attain to his full stature and live a complete life only in the ideal city/ The larger part of the Republic is in fact occupied with the ideal state, with problems of education and social control, but, as already said, we are repeatedly reminded (supra, p. xii) that all these discussions are in Plato's intention subordinated to the main ethical proof that the just life is happier than the unjust. Ethics takes precedence in that the final appeal is to the individual will and the individual thirst for happiness. Plato is to that extent an indi%idualist and a utilitarian. Politics is primary in so far as man's moral life cannot exist outside of the state. There are hints of the notion of an ideal state before Plato."* And the literary motif of Utopia has a long history.* But it was the success of the Republic and Larvs that made the portrayal of the best state the chief problem, not to say the sole theme, of Greek political science. In Plato this was due to an idealistic temper and a conviction of the irremediable corruption of Greek social and political life. The place « Rep. 520 B, Protag. 320 a, Meno 92 d-e, Laws 642 c, 951 B. * Meno 99 e. Rep. 493 a. • Cf. Rfp. 497 A ; Spencer, Ethics, vol. i. p. 280. ' Cf. Newman, Politics of Aristotle, vol. i. pp. 85 S, ' Of the immense literature of the subject it is enough to refer to Alfred Dorens' " Wiinschraume und Wiinschzeiten " in Vortrage der Bibliothek Warburg, 1924-1925, Berlin, 1927 ; Fr. Kleinwachter. Die Staats Romane, Vienna, 1891 ; Edgar Salin, Platon und die griechische Utopie, Leipzig, 1921. An incomplete list collected from these essays includes more than fifty examples. xxvii