CHAPTER 1 History of Microorganisms in Food Although it is extremely difficult to pinpoint the precise beginning of human awareness of the presence and role of microorganisms in foods,the available evidence indicates that this knowledge preceded the establishment of bacterology or microbiology as a science.The era prior to the es e To -ga ing period and the ongin over up to period.that foods were first cooked. oming into The food-producing period dates from about 8000 to 10.000 years ago and,of course,includes the present time.It is presumed that the problems of spoilage and food poisoning were encountered early in this period.With the advent of prepared foods,the problems of disease transmission by foods and of faster spoilage caused by improper storage made their appearance.Spoilage of preparec oodsapparently m a boil or making p tery wa rough o We *OO pots are though nd either started at about this tim timulated by this ent.The first evide e of be manufacture has heen traced to ancient babylon far back as 7000 Bc The Sumerians of about 3000 Bc are believed to have been the first great livestock breeders and dairymen and were among the first to make butter.Salted meats,fish,fat,dried skins,wheat,and barley are also known to have been associated with this culture.Milk,butter,and cheese were used by the Egyptians as early as 3000 Bc. 300 ds.? BC and 0 BC,the Jev s us the De e a with pas of foods elated techn that to have influer ed each other's develo the Babylonitofancin Chinfar backnd known to have heen r the As ted saus Another method of food preservation that apparently arose during this time was the use of oils such as olive and sesame.Jensens has pointed out that the use of oils leads to high incidencesof staphylo d pois oning.The Romans excelled in the preservation of meats than beef b e have use to pack prawn other perish metime du did P9 makin che nd y doubtful whethe ple 3
Chapter 1 History of Microorganisms in Food Although it is extremely difficult to pinpoint the precise beginning of human awareness of the presence and role of microorganisms in foods, the available evidence indicates that this knowledge preceded the establishment of bacteriology or microbiology as a science. The era prior to the establishment of bacteriology as a science may be designated the prescientific era. This era may be further divided into what has been called the food-gathering period and the food-producing period. The former covers the time from human origin over 1 million years ago up to 8,000 years ago. During this period, humans were presumably carnivorous, with plant foods coming into their diet later in this period. It is also during this period that foods were first cooked. The food-producing period dates from about 8,000 to 10,000 years ago and, of course, includes the present time. It is presumed that the problems of spoilage and food poisoning were encountered early in this period. With the advent of prepared foods, the problems of disease transmission by foods and of faster spoilage caused by improper storage made their appearance. Spoilage of prepared foods apparently dates from around 6000 bc. The practice of making pottery was brought to Western Europe about 5000 bc from the Near East. The first boiler pots are thought to have originated in the Near East about 8,000 years ago.11 The arts of cereal cookery, brewing, and food storage, were either started at about this time or stimulated by this new development.10 The first evidence of beer manufacture has been traced to ancient Babylonia as far back as 7000 bc.8 The Sumerians of about 3000 bc are believed to have been the first great livestock breeders and dairymen and were among the first to make butter. Salted meats, fish, fat, dried skins, wheat, and barley are also known to have been associated with this culture. Milk, butter, and cheese were used by the Egyptians as early as 3000 bc. Between 3000 bc and 1200 bc, the Jews used salt from the Dead Sea in the preservation of various foods.2 The Chinese and Greeks used salted fish in their diet, and the Greeks are credited with passing this practice on to the Romans, whose diet included pickled meats. Mummification and preservation of foods were related technologies that seem to have influenced each other’s development. Wines are known to have been prepared by the Assyrians by 3500 bc. Fermented sausages were prepared and consumed by the ancient Babylonians and the people of ancient China as far back as 1500 bc.8 Another method of food preservation that apparently arose during this time was the use of oils such as olive and sesame. Jensen6 has pointed out that the use of oils leads to high incidences of staphylococcal food poisoning. The Romans excelled in the preservation of meats other than beef by around 1000 bc and are known to have used snow to pack prawns and other perishables, according to Seneca. The practice of smoking meats as a form of preservation is presumed to have emerged sometime during this period, as did the making of cheese and wines. It is doubtful whether people 3
4 MODERN FOOD MICROBIOLOGY at this time understood the nature of these newly found preservation techniques.It is also doubtful whether the role of foods in the transmission of disease or the danger of eating meat from infected animals was recognized. Few advances were apparently made toward understanding the nature of food poisoning and food e betwceathe ne C o PhMio many de le Age hat the tovin first time in 1156.and by 1248 the Swiss were con emed with marketable and nonmarketable meats In 1276,a compulsory slaughter and inspection order was issued for public abattoirs in Augsburg Although people were aware of quality attributes in meats by the thirteenth century,it is doubtful whether there was any knowledge of the causal relationship between meat quality and microorganisms. Perhaps the first person to suggest the role of microorganisms in spoiling foods was A.Kircher. a mo es,me hat he refe o as early as t milk,and oth and a a eye. 1765 lacked pree d tha beef broth that had been boiled for an hour and sealed remained sterileand did not spoil.Spallanz performed this experiment to disprove the doctrine of the spontaneous generation of life however he did not convince the proponents of the theory because they believed that his treatment excluded oxygen,which they felt was vital to spontaneous generation.In 1837,Schwann showed that heated infusions remained sterile in the presence of air,which he supplic d by passing it through heated coils to the Although bo se mer emonst a of the heat preservation his with respectt app t th c same at pre The history of thermal canning necessitates a brief biography of Nicolas Appert (1749-1841). This Frenchman worked in his father's wine cellar early on.and he and two brothers established a brewery in 1778.In 1784,he opened a confectioner's store in Paris that was later transformed into a e business.His discovery of a food preservation process occurred betw veen 1789 and 1793 He estab lished a cannery in 1 his produc Frencn navy bega testing hi preservat mn1810. n a. French mi him to This.of cours as the e it is kn ays Thi of French wines,a development that gave rise to the rediscovery of bacteria.A.Leeuwenhoek in the Netherlands had examined bacteria through a microscope and described them in 1683,but it is unlikely that Appert was aware of this development and Leeuwenhoek's report was not available in French. esence and r e of microorganisms in food wa owed that the unng o. was cau by m roorg stroy undesirable organisms in win an ow known as urization HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS
4 Modern Food Microbiology at this time understood the nature of these newly found preservation techniques. It is also doubtful whether the role of foods in the transmission of disease or the danger of eating meat from infected animals was recognized. Few advances were apparently made toward understanding the nature of food poisoning and food spoilage between the time of the birth of Christ and ad 1100. Ergot poisoning (caused by Claviceps purpurea, a fungus that grows on rye and other grains) caused many deaths during the Middle Ages. Over 40,000 deaths due to ergot poisoning were recorded in France alone in ad 943, but it was not known that the toxin of this disease was produced by a fungus.12 Meat butchers are mentioned for the first time in 1156, and by 1248 the Swiss were concerned with marketable and nonmarketable meats. In 1276, a compulsory slaughter and inspection order was issued for public abattoirs in Augsburg. Although people were aware of quality attributes in meats by the thirteenth century, it is doubtful whether there was any knowledge of the causal relationship between meat quality and microorganisms. Perhaps the first person to suggest the role of microorganisms in spoiling foods was A. Kircher, a monk, who as early as 1658 examined decaying bodies, meat, milk, and other substances and saw what he referred to as “worms” invisible to the naked eye. Kircher’s descriptions lacked precision, however, and his observations did not receive wide acceptance. In 1765, L. Spallanzani showed that beef broth that had been boiled for an hour and sealed remained sterile and did not spoil. Spallanzani performed this experiment to disprove the doctrine of the spontaneous generation of life. However, he did not convince the proponents of the theory because they believed that his treatment excluded oxygen, which they felt was vital to spontaneous generation. In 1837, Schwann showed that heated infusions remained sterile in the presence of air, which he supplied by passing it through heated coils into the infusion.9 Although both of these men demonstrated the idea of the heat preservation of foods, neither took advantage of his findings with respect to application. The same may be said of D. Papin and G. Leibniz, who hinted at the heat preservation of foods at the turn of the eighteenth century. The history of thermal canning necessitates a brief biography of Nicolas Appert (1749–1841). This Frenchman worked in his father’s wine cellar early on, and he and two brothers established a brewery in 1778. In 1784, he opened a confectioner’s store in Paris that was later transformed into a wholesale business. His discovery of a food preservation process occurred between 1789 and 1793. He established a cannery in 1802 and exported his products to other countries. The French navy began testing his preservation method in 1802, and in 1809 a French ministry official encouraged him to promote his invention. In 1810, he published his method and was awarded the sum of 12,000 francs.7 This, of course, was the beginning of canning as it is known and practiced today.5 This event occurred some 50 years before L. Pasteur demonstrated the role of microorganisms in the spoilage of French wines, a development that gave rise to the rediscovery of bacteria. A. Leeuwenhoek in the Netherlands had examined bacteria through a microscope and described them in 1683, but it is unlikely that Appert was aware of this development and Leeuwenhoek’s report was not available in French. The first person to appreciate and understand the presence and role of microorganisms in food was Pasteur. In 1837, he showed that the souring of milk was caused by microorganisms, and in about 1860 he used heat for the first time to destroy undesirable organisms in wine and beer. This process is now known as pasteurization. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS Some of the more significant dates and events in the history of food preservation, food spoilage, food poisoning, and food legislation are listed below. The latter pertains primarily to the United States
History of Microorganisms in Food 5 Food Preservation 1782-Canning of yineg was introduced by a swedish chemist. so有mnon,aek itThe patntater cqured by Hall Gamble okn psyro Appert 1813 ervative is thought to have ted aI cans 1835A natent was gr nted to Newton in England for making condensed milk. 1837-Winslow was the first to can comn from the cob. 1839-Tin cans came into wide use in the United States.3 A.Fastier was given a French patent for the use of brine bath to raise the boiling temperature S.Goldner an thod 1842-A patent was issued to H.Benjamin in England for freezing foods by immersion in an ice and salt hrine 1843-Sterilization by steam was first attempted by I.Winslow in Maine. 1845-S.Elliott introduced canning to Australia. 8 Chevallier-Appert obtained a patent for sterlzation of food by autoclaving. 1867-186 gations.Heating to remove undesirable organisms was introduced the firet t 1856-A patent for the manufacture of uns nsed milk was granted to gail borden in the united States 1861-I.Solomon introduced the use of brine baths to the United States. 1865-The artificial freezing of fish on a commercial scale was begun in the United States.Eggs followed in 1889. 1874 he first extensive use of ice in transp at sea was begun 1878cp sure orts were in eat went fron n Australia to England.The first from New Zealand to England was sent in 1882 1880-The pasteurization of milk was begun in Germany. 1882-Krukowitsch was the first to note the destructive effects of ozone on spoilage bacteria. 1886-A mechanical process of drying fruits and vegetables was carried out by an American,A.F. Spawn. 1890 pasteuriz tion of milk was be un in the nited States 1893-The Co d 895-The first bacteriol al study of ing 1907-E.Metchnikoff and co-workers isolated and named one of the yogurt bacteria,Lactobacillus delbrueckii subso bulgaricus -The role of acetic acid bacteria in cider production was noted by B.T.P.Barker
History of Microorganisms in Food 5 Food Preservation 1782—Canning of vinegar was introduced by a Swedish chemist. 1810—Preservation of food by canning was patented by Appert in France. —Peter Durand was issued a British patent to preserve food in “glass, pottery, tin, or other metals, or fit materials.” The patent was later acquired by Hall, Gamble, and Donkin, possibly from Appert.1,4 1813—Donkin, Hall, and Gamble introduced the practice of postprocessing incubation of canned foods. —Use of SO2 as a meat preservative is thought to have originated around this time. 1825—T. Kensett and E. Daggett were granted a U.S. patent for preserving food in tin cans. 1835—A patent was granted to Newton in England for making condensed milk. 1837—Winslow was the first to can corn from the cob. 1839—Tin cans came into wide use in the United States.3 —L.A. Fastier was given a French patent for the use of brine bath to raise the boiling temperature of water. 1840—Fish and fruit were first canned. 1841—S. Goldner and J. Wertheimer were issued British patents for brine baths based on Fastier’s method. 1842—A patent was issued to H. Benjamin in England for freezing foods by immersion in an ice and salt brine. 1843—Sterilization by steam was first attempted by I. Winslow in Maine. 1845—S. Elliott introduced canning to Australia. 1853—R. Chevallier-Appert obtained a patent for sterilization of food by autoclaving. 1854—Pasteur began wine investigations. Heating to remove undesirable organisms was introduced commercially in 1867–1868. 1855—Grimwade in England was the first to produce powdered milk. 1856—A patent for the manufacture of unsweetened condensed milk was granted to Gail Borden in the United States. 1861—I. Solomon introduced the use of brine baths to the United States. 1865—The artificial freezing of fish on a commercial scale was begun in the United States. Eggs followed in 1889. 1874—The first extensive use of ice in transporting meat at sea was begun. —Steam pressure cookers or retorts were introduced. 1878—The first successful cargo of frozen meat went from Australia to England. The first from New Zealand to England was sent in 1882. 1880—The pasteurization of milk was begun in Germany. 1882—Krukowitsch was the first to note the destructive effects of ozone on spoilage bacteria. 1886—A mechanical process of drying fruits and vegetables was carried out by an American, A.F. Spawn. 1890—The commercial pasteurization of milk was begun in the United States. —Mechanical refrigeration for fruit storage was begun in Chicago. 1893—The Certified Milk movement was begun by H.L. Coit in New Jersey. 1895—The first bacteriological study of canning was made by Russell. 1907—E. Metchnikoff and co-workers isolated and named one of the yogurt bacteria, Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus. —The role of acetic acid bacteria in cider production was noted by B.T.P. Barker
6 MODERN FOOD MICROBIOLOGY 1908-Sodium benzoate was given official sanction by the United States as a preservative in certain foods. 1916-The quick freezing of foods was achieved in Germany by R.Plank,E.Ehrenbaum,and K. Reuter. 1917-Clarence Birdseye in the United States began work on the freezing of foods for the retail trade 1920B1 ed a patent fo pre erving fru an 2 The t system egetables estudy of spore Richardson,and Ball:the method was simplified by C.O.Ball in 1923. 1922-Esty and Meyer established=18F for Clostridium botulinum spores in phosphate buffer. 1928-The first commercial use of controlled-atmosphere storage of apples was made in Europe(first used in New York in 1940). 1929-A patent issued in France proposed the use ofhigh-energy radiation for the processing of foods. eye re placed in reta I market 1950 The D value concept came into 1954The antibiotic nisin was patented in England for use in certain processed cheeses to control clostridial defects, 1955 Sorbic acid was approved for use as a food preservative -The antibiotic chlortetracycline was 1967eg was rescin 7Tgx8rKaicetpodinoengciaeoiowed ty designed planned and designed in the 1988 Nisin was aceo ed GRAS (go rally p ed as safe)s 1990Irradiation of poultry was approved in the United States. the United States 1997-The irradiation of fresh beef up to a maximum level of 4.5 kGy and frozen beef up to 7.0 kGy was approved in the United States. 1997 -Ozone was declared GRAS by the U.S.Food and Drug Administration for food use. Food Spoilage 1659-Kircher demonstrated the occu ence of bacteria in milk:bondeau did the same in 1847 1680-Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe yeast cells. 1780-Scheele identified lactic acid as the principal acid in sour milk. 1836 -Latour discovered the existence of yeasts 1839-Kircher examined slimy beet juice and found organisms that formed slime when grown in 1857- sucrose solutior the rng of was caused by the growth of organisms in it fermentations 1873-The first reported study on the microbial deterioration of eggs was carried out by Gayon. -Lister was first to isolate Lactococcus lactis in pure culture. 1876-Tyndall observed that bacteria in decomposing substances were always traceable to air,sub- stances,or containers
6 Modern Food Microbiology 1908—Sodium benzoate was given official sanction by the United States as a preservative in certain foods. 1916—The quick freezing of foods was achieved in Germany by R. Plank, E. Ehrenbaum, and K. Reuter. 1917—Clarence Birdseye in the United States began work on the freezing of foods for the retail trade. —Franks was issued a patent for preserving fruits and vegetables under CO2. 1920—Bigelow and Esty published the first systematic study of spore heat resistance above 212◦F. The “general method” for calculating thermal processes was published by Bigelow, Bohart, Richardson, and Ball; the method was simplified by C.O. Ball in 1923. 1922—Esty and Meyer established z = 18◦F for Clostridium botulinum spores in phosphate buffer. 1928—The first commercial use of controlled-atmosphere storage of apples was made in Europe (first used in New York in 1940). 1929—A patent issued in France proposed the use of high-energy radiation for the processing of foods. —Birdseye frozen foods were placed in retail markets. 1943—B.E. Proctor in the United States was the first to employ the use of ionizing radiation to preserve hamburger meat. 1950—The D value concept came into general use. 1954—The antibiotic nisin was patented in England for use in certain processed cheeses to control clostridial defects, 1955—Sorbic acid was approved for use as a food preservative. —The antibiotic chlortetracycline was approved for use in fresh poultry (oxytetracycline followed a year later). Approval was rescinded in 1966. 1967—The first commercial facility designed to irradiate foods was planned and designed in the United States. The second became operational in 1992 in Florida. 1988—Nisin was accorded GRAS (generally regarded as safe) status in the United States. 1990—Irradiation of poultry was approved in the United States. 1997—The irradiation of fresh beef up to a maximum level of 4.5 kGy and frozen beef up to 7.0 kGy was approved in the United States. 1997—Ozone was declared GRAS by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for food use. Food Spoilage 1659—Kircher demonstrated the occurrence of bacteria in milk; Bondeau did the same in 1847. 1680—Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe yeast cells. 1780—Scheele identified lactic acid as the principal acid in sour milk. 1836—Latour discovered the existence of yeasts. 1839—Kircher examined slimy beet juice and found organisms that formed slime when grown in sucrose solutions. 1857—Pasteur showed that the souring of milk was caused by the growth of organisms in it. 1866—L. Pasteur’s Etude sur le Vin ´ was published. 1867—Martin advanced the theory that cheese ripening was similar to alcoholic, lactic, and butyric, fermentations. 1873—The first reported study on the microbial deterioration of eggs was carried out by Gayon. —Lister was first to isolate Lactococcus lactis in pure culture. 1876—Tyndall observed that bacteria in decomposing substances were always traceable to air, substances, or containers
History of Microorganisms in Food 7 1887Forster was the first todemonstrate the ability of pure cutures of bacteria to. 1888-Miquel was the first to study thermonhilic hacteria 1895-The first records on the determination of numbers of bacteria in milk were those of Von Geuns in Amsterdam. S.C.Prescott and W.Underwood traced the spoilage ofcanned corn to improper heat processing sedby Schmid-Nielen or 1912-The term mophile was coined by Richter to describe yeasts that grow well in an environment of high osmotic pressure 1915-Bacillus coagulans was first isolated from coagulated milk by B.W.Hammer. 1917-Geobacillus stearothermophilus was first isolated from cream-style corn by P.J.Donk. 1933-Oliver and Smith in England observed spoilage by Byssochlamys fulva:first described in the United States in 1964 by D.Maunder. Food Poisoning 1820-The German poet Justinus Kerner described"sausage poisoning"(which in all probability was botulism)and its high fatality rate. -Milk was incriminated as a transmitter of typhoid fever by W.Taylor of Penrith.England. advanced his theory of ptomaine poisoning to explain illness contracted by first isolated Salmonella enteritidis from meat that had caused 57 cases of food 1894_01D0 ae the fre 1896 Van Ermengem first dis with food poisoning ered Cl 1904-Type A strain of C.borulinum was identified by G.Landman. 1906-Bacillus cereus food poisoning was recognized.The first case of diphyllobothriasis was recognized 1926 -The first report of food poisoning by streptococci w vas made by Linden,Turner,and Thom. 1937 ype E m was iden by L.Bier and E.Hazen ed to milk in Illinois 1939-Gastroenteritis ca sed hy inia ente vas firr ized by Schleifstein and Coleman. 1945-McClung was the first to prove the etiologic status of Clostridium perfringens(welchii)in food poisoning. n to be an agent of food poisoning by T.Fujino of Japan mila 1960-Type F strain of C.botulinum identified by Moller and Scheibel. -The production of aflatoxins by Aspergillus flavus was first reported
History of Microorganisms in Food 7 1878—Cienkowski reported the first microbiological study of sugar slimes and isolated Leuconostoc mesenteroides from them. 1887—Forster was the first to demonstrate the ability of pure cultures of bacteria to grow at 0◦C. 1888—Miquel was the first to study thermophilic bacteria. 1895—The first records on the determination of numbers of bacteria in milk were those of Von Geuns in Amsterdam. —S.C. Prescott andW. Underwood traced the spoilage of canned corn to improper heat processing for the first time. 1902—The term psychrophile was first used by Schmidt-Nielsen for microorganisms that grow at 0◦C. 1912—The term osmophile was coined by Richter to describe yeasts that grow well in an environment of high osmotic pressure. 1915—Bacillus coagulans was first isolated from coagulated milk by B.W. Hammer. 1917—Geobacillus stearothermophilus was first isolated from cream-style corn by P.J. Donk. 1933—Oliver and Smith in England observed spoilage by Byssochlamys fulva; first described in the United States in 1964 by D. Maunder. Food Poisoning 1820—The German poet Justinus Kerner described “sausage poisoning” (which in all probability was botulism) and its high fatality rate. 1857—Milk was incriminated as a transmitter of typhoid fever by W. Taylor of Penrith, England. 1870—Francesco Selmi advanced his theory of ptomaine poisoning to explain illness contracted by eating certain foods. 1888—Gaertner first isolated Salmonella enteritidis from meat that had caused 57 cases of food poisoning. 1894—T. Denys was the first to associate staphylococci with food poisoning. 1896—Van Ermengem first discovered Clostridium botulinum. 1904—Type A strain of C. botulinum was identified by G. Landman. 1906—Bacillus cereus food poisoning was recognized. The first case of diphyllobothriasis was recognized. 1926—The first report of food poisoning by streptococci was made by Linden, Turner, and Thom. 1937—Type E strain of C. botulinum was identified by L. Bier and E. Hazen. 1937—Paralytic shellfish poisoning was recognized. 1938—Outbreaks of Campylobacter enteritis were traced to milk in Illinois. 1939—Gastroenteritis caused by Yersinia enterocolitica was first recognized by Schleifstein and Coleman. 1945—McClung was the first to prove the etiologic status of Clostridium perfringens (welchii) in food poisoning. 1951—Vibrio parahaemolyticus was shown to be an agent of food poisoning by T. Fujino of Japan. 1955—Similarities between cholera and Escherichia coli gastroenteritis in infants were noted by S. Thompson. —Scombroid (histamine-associated) poisoning was recognized. —The first documented case of anisakiasis occurred in the United States. 1960—Type F strain of C. botulinum identified by Moller and Scheibel. —The production of aflatoxins by Aspergillus flavus was first reported