7Evolutionof Fire ScienceFukushima nuclear facility caused explosions in three reactors.These wereexplosionsduetothereleaseofhydrogengasfromchemicalreactionbetweenzirconium and steam when the nuclear reactor cooling system failed. Thereaction between hydrogen and air caused the explosion, as this suddenenergy release failed the containment vessel of the reactor. Undoubtedly,fires in the contents resulted as a consequence. Also, the release into theatmosphereof radioactiveproducts occurred.Thisdispersionof radioactivedebrisisalong-termhazard.It is surprising that more study is not done on the effects of fire due toearthquake as opposed to just the structural impact of the jolt. And perhapsthe consequences of fire in a nuclear facility should be studied more. TheeventatThreeMileIsland was similartoFukushima withoutanearthquakecause. That event was caused by loss of coolant to the reactor and then a sim-ilar releaseofhydrogen.Afire in a nuclear waste facility is anotherpotentialdisaster,asairborneradioactivewaste canbetransportedveryfarbythefireplume in such an accident.1.3.3MeteorsThere is one more natural cause offire that humankind has notexperienced,but unfortunately,the dinosaurs did.It has been generally established thatinabout65millionBCalargemeteorite smashed intotheEarth.Themeteor-ite'spassagethroughtheatmosphereanditsimpact (equalingmanynuclearbombs) caused frictional heating and pressurethat propelled debris andfireproducts into the atmosphere.This resulted in a soot cloud that circled theEarth and affected the atmosphere for at least a year, causing a perpetualwinterand thedemise of thedinosaurs by virtuallyeliminatingtheirfoodsupply.This cataclysmic event probably occurred more than once over eons,sealing the fate of thedinosaurs and other creatures and plants.The con-sequences of this particular fire event are knownbecause remnants of themeteorite (iridium) have been found in various parts of the world in thestrata of rock from the same geologic time:between the Cretaceous andTertiaryperiods.The impact scenario causes smoke and dust to enter the atmosphere,block sunlight,and lowerthe temperature.Theso-called nuclear winterhas the potential to destroy much life on Earth, just as a perpetual winterdestroyed the dinosaurs. This winter effect of a large fire was publicizedin the1980s when nuclear warfare studies determined that the fire from alimited nuclear war could producedebris and smokethat would result ina nuclear winter.Our world would be in jeopardy from a sustained reduc-tion of light and temperature.Many studies weredone to substantiatethis"fallout" from even a survivable nuclear war.The noted science writer,CarlSagan, was one of the strongest advocates for studying the consequencesof nuclear winter.Evenbefore the cold warended, all nuclear parties werechilled by this possibility
Evolution of Fire Science 7 Fukushima nuclear facility caused explosions in three reactors. These were explosions due to the release of hydrogen gas from chemical reaction between zirconium and steam when the nuclear reactor cooling system failed. The reaction between hydrogen and air caused the explosion, as this sudden energy release failed the containment vessel of the reactor. Undoubtedly, fires in the contents resulted as a consequence. Also, the release into the atmosphere of radioactive products occurred. This dispersion of radioactive debris is a long-term hazard. It is surprising that more study is not done on the effects of fire due to earthquake as opposed to just the structural impact of the jolt. And perhaps the consequences of fire in a nuclear facility should be studied more. The event at Three Mile Island was similar to Fukushima without an earthquake cause. That event was caused by loss of coolant to the reactor and then a similar release of hydrogen. A fire in a nuclear waste facility is another potential disaster, as airborne radioactive waste can be transported very far by the fire plume in such an accident. 1.3.3 Meteors There is one more natural cause of fire that humankind has not experienced, but unfortunately, the dinosaurs did. It has been generally established that in about 65 million BC a large meteorite smashed into the Earth. The meteorite’s passage through the atmosphere and its impact (equaling many nuclear bombs) caused frictional heating and pressure that propelled debris and fire products into the atmosphere. This resulted in a soot cloud that circled the Earth and affected the atmosphere for at least a year, causing a perpetual winter and the demise of the dinosaurs by virtually eliminating their food supply. This cataclysmic event probably occurred more than once over eons, sealing the fate of the dinosaurs and other creatures and plants. The consequences of this particular fire event are known because remnants of the meteorite (iridium) have been found in various parts of the world in the strata of rock from the same geologic time: between the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods. The impact scenario causes smoke and dust to enter the atmosphere, block sunlight, and lower the temperature. The so-called nuclear winter has the potential to destroy much life on Earth, just as a perpetual winter destroyed the dinosaurs. This winter effect of a large fire was publicized in the 1980s when nuclear warfare studies determined that the fire from a limited nuclear war could produce debris and smoke that would result in a nuclear winter. Our world would be in jeopardy from a sustained reduction of light and temperature. Many studies were done to substantiate this “fallout” from even a survivable nuclear war. The noted science writer, Carl Sagan, was one of the strongest advocates for studying the consequences of nuclear winter. Even before the cold war ended, all nuclear parties were chilled by this possibility
8Principles of Fire BehaviorThe recent meteor strike in Russian (2013) was unexpected and causedmuch damagefrom the pressure of its associated shock wave.Nofires werereported as a consequence, but the eventhas heightened humankind's alert-ness to such vulnerabilities1.3.4VolcanoesSimilar to the meteorite consequences,largevolcanic activityhasbeenknown to cause catastrophic extinction of theEarth'sspecies.Itmight beof interest to those in the United States to realize that the large crater inYellowstone National Park is the remnant of a large volcano.It last cata-strophically erupted about 640,000 years ago, launching 1,000 km3of rockand dust into the atmosphere. Its violent explosion would have producedtremendous damage for manymiles around. In modern times, Krakatoa(May1883)erupted with suchaneffectthatbarographsrecorded itaroundtheworld.Theash was driven 50miles intothe sky,and it settled aroundthe globe.A subsequent drop in average global temperature of 1.2°C wasfound.We,as those inPompei(AD 79)buriedunder20ft of ash androck, are still vulnerable.This was highlighted when a volcano in Icelanderupted in 2010.Its ash cloud closed air travel over much of Europe forabouta week.1.3.5 Underground FiresThere are everyday common examples of fires in subway systems, tunnels,and mines. In addition, fire can begin and be sustained within the soil.Consideracoupleofexampleswithhistoricalsignificance.Long afterthedinosaurs,humankind evolved and eventuallycultivatedfire.Aristotlethoughtit is sufficiently important to classify itas oneofthe four elements of matter: fire, earth, air, and water. Fire was used andabused in many ways. Hazel Rossotti vividly describes the uses, haz-ards, and spiritual qualities of fire as used by society? She describes howCherokee Indians learned to preserve fire by burying a smoldering log,then digging it up, and fanning it into flames. Buried fire is now associ-ated with wastedumps of wood or recycled plastics.Such fires can startfrom spontaneous ignition leading to smoldering and then flames.Thisprocess probably came as a surprise to those who experienced the StumpDumpFirenearBaltimore,Marylandin1990.Thisincidentinvolvedmorethan 5 acres of buried tree stumps. After many attempts at extinguish-ment failed, the stumps were more completely buried,probably slowingthesmoldering,butnotextinguishingit.A mystery in an underground fire is associated with the TerracottaWarriors found outside of Xian in China.The tombs were constructed bythefirstEmperorQinabout221BC.Thesetombs contain anarmyof life-sizeterracotta soldiers.On their discovery in 1974, the archaeological findings
8 Principles of Fire Behavior The recent meteor strike in Russian (2013) was unexpected and caused much damage from the pressure of its associated shock wave. No fires were reported as a consequence, but the event has heightened humankind’s alertness to such vulnerabilities. 1.3.4 Volcanoes Similar to the meteorite consequences, large volcanic activity has been known to cause catastrophic extinction of the Earth’s species. It might be of interest to those in the United States to realize that the large crater in Yellowstone National Park is the remnant of a large volcano. It last catastrophically erupted about 640,000 years ago, launching 1,000 km3 of rock and dust into the atmosphere. Its violent explosion would have produced tremendous damage for many miles around. In modern times, Krakatoa (May 1883) erupted with such an effect that barographs recorded it around the world. The ash was driven 50 miles into the sky, and it settled around the globe. A subsequent drop in average global temperature of 1.2°C was found. We, as those in Pompeii (AD 79) buried under 20 ft of ash and rock, are still vulnerable. This was highlighted when a volcano in Iceland erupted in 2010. Its ash cloud closed air travel over much of Europe for about a week. 1.3.5 Underground Fires There are everyday common examples of fires in subway systems, tunnels, and mines. In addition, fire can begin and be sustained within the soil. Consider a couple of examples with historical significance. Long after the dinosaurs, humankind evolved and eventually cultivated fire. Aristotle thought it is sufficiently important to classify it as one of the four elements of matter: fire, earth, air, and water. Fire was used and abused in many ways. Hazel Rossotti vividly describes the uses, hazards, and spiritual qualities of fire as used by society.2 She describes how Cherokee Indians learned to preserve fire by burying a smoldering log, then digging it up, and fanning it into flames. Buried fire is now associated with waste dumps of wood or recycled plastics. Such fires can start from spontaneous ignition leading to smoldering and then flames. This process probably came as a surprise to those who experienced the Stump Dump Fire near Baltimore, Maryland in 1990. This incident involved more than 5 acres of buried tree stumps. After many attempts at extinguishment failed, the stumps were more completely buried, probably slowing the smoldering, but not extinguishing it. A mystery in an underground fire is associated with the Terracotta Warriors found outside of Xian in China. The tombs were constructed by the first Emperor Qin about 221 BC. These tombs contain an army of life-size terracotta soldiers. On their discovery in 1974, the archaeological findings
9EvolutionofFireSciencedisplayed evidence of extensive fire debris at the roof level.The tombs wereburied intheground with atimberroofabout 3mbelowthe surface.As thesewere secret, and completely buried, it is not known how the fires occurred.The determination of the causedesecration,accidental in robbery, ornatural-can illuminate history.3 Fire forensics can be a tool for archaeolo-gists that can reveal more than the artifacts themselves.1.4FireandWarThe use of fire in war is well known.But before World War Il, fire was some-what limitedtoground operations.Aircraftbombing added to itsextentandintensity.Theintroductionofnapalm-agelledpetroleumproduct-addedtothe consequences of aerial bombing.The first systematic and sustained bomb-ing of a city was the London Blitz lasting from about August 1940 until theNazis invaded Russia in June 1941. Incendiary bombing was not used. But by1943, the Allies established a policy to disturb life in large cities by destroyinglarge areas of thecity and halting normal life activities.This was designed totargetthemoraleofthepopulation.The first city targeted with this policy intention was Dresden. It wasbombed onFebruary13,1943at10:13p.m.5Fourthousandpoundbombswere used to splinter the structures to make them more combustible.Incendiarynapalmbombs followedthis firstattack.Thefires were seenfromover 100 miles away. A storm arose; as far as the eye could see, this wasgiven the name,firestorm.Survivors said it was likebeing in a burning stove.Currents of air and firebombarded thefleeing people.Thosethat could notmovewere asphyxiated where they stopped.Over75,000 apartment build-ings were destroyed, and likely 40,000 died, but this number is debated.5The next firestorm occurredin Hamburg onMarch 27/28,1943.4Lancaster and B-17 bombers were prominent among nearly 800 aircraft."The whole yard, the canal, in fact as far as we could see, was just awhole,great,massive sea of fire."Six thousand apartment-block build-ings burned in a 1.5 × 3 mile area. People were ignited by the radiation,some were blown into burning buildings, clothes were torn off, air wassucked out of shelters, and 40,000 likely died.The massive fire causedhurricane force winds atground level, brokebranches,and even uprootedtrees.Thefireragedfor5hours.These large-area fires suck in air from all directions. They pull the oxygenout of the core and bringhigh-speed air around theperimeter and into thecenter. This is the firestorm.Its name was invented at these fires.The term firestorm was never applied to incidents in Japan.But GeneralCurtis LeMay used the same tactics in bombing Japanese cities. These tacticswere refined and studied during bombing experiments in the summer of
Evolution of Fire Science 9 displayed evidence of extensive fire debris at the roof level. The tombs were buried in the ground with a timber roof about 3 m below the surface. As these were secret, and completely buried, it is not known how the fires occurred. The determination of the cause—desecration, accidental in robbery, or natural—can illuminate history.3 Fire forensics can be a tool for archaeologists that can reveal more than the artifacts themselves. 1.4 Fire and War The use of fire in war is well known. But before World War II, fire was somewhat limited to ground operations. Aircraft bombing added to its extent and intensity. The introduction of napalm—a gelled petroleum product—added to the consequences of aerial bombing. The first systematic and sustained bombing of a city was the London Blitz lasting from about August 1940 until the Nazis invaded Russia in June 1941. Incendiary bombing was not used. But by 1943, the Allies established a policy to disturb life in large cities by destroying large areas of the city and halting normal life activities. This was designed to target the morale of the population.4 The first city targeted with this policy intention was Dresden. It was bombed on February 13, 1943 at 10:13 p.m.5 Four thousand pound bombs were used to splinter the structures to make them more combustible. Incendiary napalm bombs followed this first attack. The fires were seen from over 100 miles away. A storm arose; as far as the eye could see, this was given the name, firestorm. Survivors said it was like being in a burning stove. Currents of air and fire bombarded the fleeing people. Those that could not move were asphyxiated where they stopped. Over 75,000 apartment buildings were destroyed, and likely 40,000 died, but this number is debated.5 The next firestorm occurred in Hamburg on March 27/28, 1943.4 Lancaster and B-17 bombers were prominent among nearly 800 aircraft. “The whole yard, the canal, in fact as far as we could see, was just a whole, great, massive sea of fire.”4 Six thousand apartment-block buildings burned in a 1.5 × 3 mile area. People were ignited by the radiation, some were blown into burning buildings, clothes were torn off, air was sucked out of shelters, and 40,000 likely died. The massive fire caused hurricane force winds at ground level, broke branches, and even uprooted trees. The fire raged for 5 hours. These large-area fires suck in air from all directions. They pull the oxygen out of the core and bring high-speed air around the perimeter and into the center. This is the firestorm. Its name was invented at these fires. The term firestorm was never applied to incidents in Japan. But General Curtis LeMay used the same tactics in bombing Japanese cities. These tactics were refined and studied during bombing experiments in the summer of
10PrinciplesofFireBehavior1943atDugwayProvingGrounds inUtahona simulated cityknownas"Little Tokyo."They demonstrated the vulnerability of the traditionalJapanese wooden houses.Duringthe spring and summer of 1944, mostmajor Japanese cities were carpet bombed by B-29 bombers.Of these majorcities, from about 25%to 75% of the city's areas were obliterated and turnedtoash.InOsaka,16miles?weredestroyed in contrast to3miles?destroyedin the Great Chicago Fire of 1871.6 This destruction far exceeded the effectsoftheatomicbombsonHiroshimaandNagasaki.There is no doubt that henceforth fire will be part of war. Yet with asmaller"weapon, a single aircraft filled with liquid fuel was the instru-ment of destruction forWorld TradeCenterTowers and thePentagon.Thosewere aircraft fuel-initiated fires that ultimately led to sustained fire spreadover ordinary contents and heat-induced failure of the structures.The causeof the fires is clear, but the reason for the destruction of these fire-resistivebuildings is notsoevident.1.5FireintheUnitedStatesandAbroadHistory is punctuated with fire disasters. The Great Fire of London (1666)and the Chicago Fire (1871)caused the destruction of thousands of build-ings.These were literally forest fire-like events in that wind was a princi-pal factor in their spread. Once the wind died, the fire stopped. Mechanicalsuppression apparatus could not deal with suchfires until calm conditionsprevailed.Thesefires wereconflagrations or massfires involvinglarge tractsat a given time.Their lateral flame extent is much greater than their flameheight. It was noted that similar large fires resulted in World War II fromsuchbombing raids asHamburg,Dresden, and Tokyo.Today,webegin tosee some return to large conflagrations of dwellings as urban developmenthas spread intotheforest.Thetermurban wildland firehasnowbeencoinedtorefertothesefires.1.5.1U.S.StatisticsIt is instructivetoput thecatastrophes of fireintoperspectiveagainstothernatural and technological disasters.Indeed,many of thegreatestdisasters inrecent historyfromnatural phenomenaare likelytobedue tofire.Table1.1lists the top 25 U.S. disasters by death toll.The fatality level ranges from 400to possibly as highas 12,000.More than 40% involved fire.So, fire is amajorcontributor to large lifeloss catastrophes.Such enormous disasters are relatively infrequent as they span overmore than 100 years. Instead,it is the local effects offire that havecontrib-uted to our perception of its hazard.According to National Fire Protection
10 Principles of Fire Behavior 1943 at Dugway Proving Grounds in Utah on a simulated city known as “Little Tokyo.” They demonstrated the vulnerability of the traditional Japanese wooden houses. During the spring and summer of 1944, most major Japanese cities were carpet bombed by B-29 bombers. Of these major cities, from about 25% to 75% of the city’s areas were obliterated and turned to ash. In Osaka, 16 miles2 were destroyed in contrast to 3 miles2 destroyed in the Great Chicago Fire of 1871.6 This destruction far exceeded the effects of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. There is no doubt that henceforth fire will be part of war. Yet with a smaller “weapon,” a single aircraft filled with liquid fuel was the instrument of destruction for World Trade Center Towers and the Pentagon. Those were aircraft fuel–initiated fires that ultimately led to sustained fire spread over ordinary contents and heat-induced failure of the structures. The cause of the fires is clear, but the reason for the destruction of these fire-resistive buildings is not so evident. 1.5 Fire in the United States and Abroad History is punctuated with fire disasters. The Great Fire of London (1666) and the Chicago Fire (1871) caused the destruction of thousands of buildings. These were literally forest fire–like events in that wind was a principal factor in their spread. Once the wind died, the fire stopped. Mechanical suppression apparatus could not deal with such fires until calm conditions prevailed. These fires were conflagrations or mass fires involving large tracts at a given time. Their lateral flame extent is much greater than their flame height. It was noted that similar large fires resulted in World War II from such bombing raids as Hamburg, Dresden, and Tokyo. Today, we begin to see some return to large conflagrations of dwellings as urban development has spread into the forest. The term urban wildland fire has now been coined to refer to these fires. 1.5.1 U.S. Statistics It is instructive to put the catastrophes of fire into perspective against other natural and technological disasters. Indeed, many of the greatest disasters in recent history from natural phenomena are likely to be due to fire. Table 1.1 lists the top 25 U.S. disasters by death toll. The fatality level ranges from 400 to possibly as high as 12,000. More than 40% involved fire. So, fire is a major contributor to large life loss catastrophes. Such enormous disasters are relatively infrequent as they span over more than 100 years. Instead, it is the local effects of fire that have contributed to our perception of its hazard. According to National Fire Protection
11Evolutionof Fire ScienceTABLE1.1Top25Disasters in the United States by Death Toll (Excluding Epidemicsand HeatWaves)EventDateFatalities19001. Hurricane, Galveston, TX6,00012,0002. Earthquake and fire, San Francisco19064506,00019281,8003,0003. Hurricane, Great Okeechobee, FL4.9/11 Terrorist attacks20013,00019412,5005. Military attack, Pearl Harbor, HI18892,2003,0006. Flood, Johnstown, PA18932,0007.Hurricane, LA20051,8308. Hurricane Katrina, LA, MS, FL, AL18651,5001,7009.Shipexplosion,Sultana,MississippiRiver,TN18711,2002,50010. Peshtigo fire, WS, MI19041,00011. Ship fire and sinking, East River, NYC18931,0002,00012. Hurricane, Sea Islands, SC, GA800191513. Ship sinking, S. S. Eastland, Chicago700192514. Tri-State Tornadoes, MO, IL, IN190360015.Fire,IroquoisTheater,Chicago191960016. Hurricane, Florida Keys192860017. Flood, St. Francis Dam, CA600193818.Hurricane, New England194755019. Explosion (ship), Texas City, TX191850080020. Wildfire, MN500187121.Wildfire, MI492194222. Fire, Cocoanut Grove, Boston193643023. Tornadoes, Tupelo (MS)-Gainesville (GA)191343024. Floods, OH193540025. Hurricane, Labor Day, FLNote:福Fromvarious sources with estimated deathtolls.Association (NFPA)over1.3millionfireswerereportedintheUnited Statesin2010,withabout480,000instructures,200,000invehicles,and630,000outside.7Witha U.S.population of 308million,this suggests a structuralfire eachyearfor at least1in200households.This is thefrequency offireoccurringpossiblyinyourhome.Roughly3700civiliandeaths occurredin2010intheUnitedStates.Foratotalpopulationof308millionwitha lifeexpectancy of 70years,we calculate308×10°people70years×3100deaths/year
Evolution of Fire Science 11 Association (NFPA) over 1.3 million fires were reported in the United States in 2010, with about 480,000 in structures, 200,000 in vehicles, and 630,000 outside.7 With a U.S. population of 308 million, this suggests a structural fire each year for at least 1 in 200 households. This is the frequency of fire occurring possibly in your home. Roughly 3700 civilian deaths occurred in 2010 in the United States. For a total population of 308 million with a life expectancy of 70 years, we calculate 308 10 70 3100 6 ´ ´ people years deaths/year TABLE 1.1 Top 25 Disasters in the United States by Death Toll (Excluding Epidemics and Heat Waves) Event Date Fatalities 1. Hurricane, Galveston, TX 1900 6,000–12,000 2. Earthquake and fire, San Francisco 1906 450–6,000 3. Hurricane, Great Okeechobee, FL 1928 1,800–3,000 4. 9/11 Terrorist attacks 2001 3,000 5. Military attack, Pearl Harbor, HI 1941 2,500 6. Flood, Johnstown, PA 1889 2,200–3,000 7. Hurricane, LA 1893 2,000 8. Hurricane Katrina, LA, MS, FL, AL 2005 1,830 9. Ship explosion, Sultana, Mississippi River, TN 1865 1,500–1,700 10. Peshtigo fire, WS, MI 1871 1,200–2,500 11. Ship fire and sinking, East River, NYC 1904 1,000 12. Hurricane, Sea Islands, SC, GA 1893 1,000–2,000 13. Ship sinking, S. S. Eastland, Chicago 1915 800 14. Tri-State Tornadoes, MO, IL, IN 1925 700 15. Fire, Iroquois Theater, Chicago 1903 600 16. Hurricane, Florida Keys 1919 600 17. Flood, St. Francis Dam, CA 1928 600 18. Hurricane, New England 1938 600 19. Explosion (ship), Texas City, TX 1947 550 20. Wildfire, MN 1918 500–800 21. Wildfire, MI 1871 500 22. Fire, Cocoanut Grove, Boston 1942 492 23. Tornadoes, Tupelo (MS)–Gainesville (GA) 1936 430 24. Floods, OH 1913 430 25. Hurricane, Labor Day, FL 1935 400 Note: From various sources with estimated death tolls