populations also reap the benefits of policies to control pollution,making investing in air qual- ity management highly cost-effective. The remainder of this report is organized as follows.Chapter 2 details the 2013 estimates of the Global Burden of Disease(GBD)Study of air pollution exposure and health impacts, which form the basis of the valuation exercise.Chapter 3 describes the methods and data for the economic valuation of premature mortality costs and presents the results.Chapter 4 then synthesizes the results and discusses the way forward. The Context for This Report This report emerged from a collaborative effort between the World Bank and the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation(IHME)at the University of Washington,Seattle.IHME has steered the international scientific effort behind the Global Burden of Disease Study since publication of the 2010 study(Murray et al.2012).GBD 2013 marks the latest stage in the GBD process and represents the state of the art in the evolving science,which will continue to be updated yearly.The GBD estimates currently offer the most extensive estimates of exposure and trends in air pollution levels and their associated burden of disease.The partnership between the World Bank and IHME speaks to the need for the development and scientific communities to work together in solving environmental health problems. This report also marks part of a renewed commitment by the World Bank to work with coun- tries and stakeholders in tackling air pollution.A Bank-wide review published in early 2015 found that air pollution control is still given "low priority"within the Bank and by developing countries (Awe et al.2015).Responding to calls for greater action,in April 2015 the Bank launched a new Pollution Management and Environmental Health(PMEH)program.This study aims to further the objectives of the PMEH program by strengthening the economic case for why countries need to take action to reduce air pollution and by raising awareness of the scale of the problem. A secondary objective of this report is to further the development of a consistent framework for valuing the costs of air pollution across World Bank operations.Assessing potential invest- ments and advising governments on policy are just two of the various activities the Bank undertakes that require it to estimate the economic costs of pollution.Meanwhile,over the past decades tremendous progress has been made in understanding both the epidemiology and economics of health risks from pollution.This report has provided an opportunity to assess what has been done and to bring more uniformity and consistency to the ways in which pollution costs are valued across Bank operations.For example,the need for greater consis- tency was noted in a 2014 review by Resources for the Future(RFF)of the World Bank's meth- odology for estimating damages from particulate emissions for the adjusted net savings(ANS) indicator(Cropper and Khanna 2014).Following the RFF review,the authors of this report undertook an extensive review of methodologies for valuing health risks from air pollution, consulting with experts inside and outside the Bank.The findings of this review are detailed in a technical background paper by Narain and Sall(2016),and its findings are implemented in this report. The Cost of Air Pollution:Strengthening the Economic Case for Action 7
The Cost of Air Pollution: Strengthening the Economic Case for Action 7 populations also reap the benefits of policies to control pollution, making investing in air quality management highly cost-effective. The remainder of this report is organized as follows. Chapter 2 details the 2013 estimates of the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) Study of air pollution exposure and health impacts, which form the basis of the valuation exercise. Chapter 3 describes the methods and data for the economic valuation of premature mortality costs and presents the results. Chapter 4 then synthesizes the results and discusses the way forward. The Context for This Report This report emerged from a collaborative effort between the World Bank and the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME) at the University of Washington, Seattle. IHME has steered the international scientific effort behind the Global Burden of Disease Study since publication of the 2010 study (Murray et al. 2012). GBD 2013 marks the latest stage in the GBD process and represents the state of the art in the evolving science, which will continue to be updated yearly. The GBD estimates currently offer the most extensive estimates of exposure and trends in air pollution levels and their associated burden of disease. The partnership between the World Bank and IHME speaks to the need for the development and scientific communities to work together in solving environmental health problems. This report also marks part of a renewed commitment by the World Bank to work with countries and stakeholders in tackling air pollution. A Bank-wide review published in early 2015 found that air pollution control is still given “low priority” within the Bank and by developing countries (Awe et al. 2015). Responding to calls for greater action, in April 2015 the Bank launched a new Pollution Management and Environmental Health (PMEH) program. This study aims to further the objectives of the PMEH program by strengthening the economic case for why countries need to take action to reduce air pollution and by raising awareness of the scale of the problem. A secondary objective of this report is to further the development of a consistent framework for valuing the costs of air pollution across World Bank operations. Assessing potential investments and advising governments on policy are just two of the various activities the Bank undertakes that require it to estimate the economic costs of pollution. Meanwhile, over the past decades tremendous progress has been made in understanding both the epidemiology and economics of health risks from pollution. This report has provided an opportunity to assess what has been done and to bring more uniformity and consistency to the ways in which pollution costs are valued across Bank operations. For example, the need for greater consistency was noted in a 2014 review by Resources for the Future (RFF) of the World Bank’s methodology for estimating damages from particulate emissions for the adjusted net savings (ANS) indicator (Cropper and Khanna 2014). Following the RFF review, the authors of this report undertook an extensive review of methodologies for valuing health risks from air pollution, consulting with experts inside and outside the Bank. The findings of this review are detailed in a technical background paper by Narain and Sall (2016), and its findings are implemented in this report. 1700234_Cost of Pollution.indd 7 8/29/16 1:55 PM
Notes 1.Air pollution refers to a combination of ambient air pollution,household air pollution,and pollu- tion caused by ambient ozone. 2.Geographic regions as reported in this study include countries of all income levels and are grouped according to World Bank definitions.See World Bank,"Country and Lending Groups,"http://data .worldbank.org/about/country-and-lending-groups. 3.Income groups are according to World Bank definitions.See World Bank,"Country and Lending Groups,"http://data.worldbank.org/about/country-and-lending-groups. 4.See Brulle and Pellow(2006)for a review. References Avnery,Shiri,Denise Mauzerall,Junfeng Liu,and Larry Horowitz.2011."Global Crop Yield Reductions Due to Surface Ozone Exposure:1.Year 2000 Crop Production Losses and Economic Damage." Atmospheric Environment 45(13):2284-96. Awe,Y.,J.Nygard,S.Larssen,H.Lee,H.Dulal,and R.Kanakia.2015."Clean Air and Health Lungs: Enhancing the World Bank's Approach to Air Quality Management"Environment and Natural Resources Global Practice Discussion Paper 03,World Bank Group Report ACS9035,Washington, DC,February. Brauer,Michael,Greg Freedman,Joseph Frostad,Aaron van Donkelaar,Randall V.Martin,Frank Den- tener,Rita van Dingenen et al.2016."Ambient Air Pollution Exposure Estimation for the Global Burden of Disease 2013.Environmental Science and Technology 50(1):79-88. Brulle,Richard,and David Pellow.2006."Environmental Justice:Human Health and Environmental Inequalities."Annual Review of Public Health 27:103-24. Chafe,Z.A.,Brauer,M.,Klimont,Z.,Van Dingenen,R.,Mehta,S.,Rao,S.,Riahi,K.Dentener,F.Smith, K.R.2014."Household Cooking with Solid Fuels Contributes to Ambient PM,s Air Pollution and the Burden of Disease."Environmental Health Perspectives 122(12):1314-1320. Chen,Dima,Zhichun Lan,Xue Bai,James Grace,and Yongfei Bai.2013."Evidence that Acidification- Induced Declines in Plant Diversity and Productivity Are Mediated by Changes in Below-Ground Communities and Soil Properties in a Semi-Arid Steppe."Journal of Ecology 101:1322-34. Chen,Stephen.2014."Agriculture Feels the Choke as China Smog Starts to Foster Disastrous Condi- tions."South China Morning Post,February 25.http://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1434700/ china-smog-threatens-agriculture-nuclear-fallout-conditions-warn. Cropper,M.,and S.Khanna.2014."How Should the World Bank Estimate Air Pollution Damages?" Discussion Paper No.14-30,Resources for the Future,Washington,DC,September. Dupre,Cecilia,Carly Stevens,Traute Ranke,Albert Bleeker,Cord Peppler-Lisbach,David Gowing, Nancy Dise,et al.2010."Changes in Species Richness and Composition in European Acidic Grass- lands Over the Past 70 Years:The Contribution of Cumulative Atmospheric Nitrogen Deposition." Global Change Biology 16:344-57. EIU(Economist Intelligence Unit).2014."A Summary of the Liveability Ranking and Overview."http:// pages.eiu.com/rs/eiu2/images/Liveability_rankings_2014.pdf. GAHP(Global Alliance on Health and Pollution).2013."The Poisoned Poor:Toxic Chemicals Expo- sures in Low-and Middle-Income Countries."New York. GBD 2013 Collaborators.2015."Global,Regional,and National Comparative Risk Assessment of 79 Behavioural,Environmental and Occupational,and Metabolic Risks or Clusters of Risks in 188 Countries,1990-2013:A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013"The Lancet396(10010):2287-2323. 8 The Cost of Air Pollution:Strengthening the Economic Case for Action
8 The Cost of Air Pollution: Strengthening the Economic Case for Action Notes 1. Air pollution refers to a combination of ambient air pollution, household air pollution, and pollution caused by ambient ozone. 2. Geographic regions as reported in this study include countries of all income levels and are grouped according to World Bank definitions. See World Bank, “Country and Lending Groups,” http://data .worldbank.org/about/country-and-lending-groups. 3. Income groups are according to World Bank definitions. See World Bank, “Country and Lending Groups,” http://data.worldbank.org/about/country-and-lending-groups. 4. See Brulle and Pellow (2006) for a review. References Avnery, Shiri, Denise Mauzerall, Junfeng Liu, and Larry Horowitz. 2011. “Global Crop Yield Reductions Due to Surface Ozone Exposure: 1. Year 2000 Crop Production Losses and Economic Damage.” Atmospheric Environment 45 (13): 2284–96. Awe, Y., J. Nygard, S. Larssen, H. Lee, H. Dulal, and R. Kanakia. 2015. “Clean Air and Health Lungs: Enhancing the World Bank’s Approach to Air Quality Management.” Environment and Natural Resources Global Practice Discussion Paper 03, World Bank Group Report ACS9035, Washington, DC, February. Brauer, Michael, Greg Freedman, Joseph Frostad, Aaron van Donkelaar, Randall V. Martin, Frank Dentener, Rita van Dingenen et al. 2016. “Ambient Air Pollution Exposure Estimation for the Global Burden of Disease 2013.” Environmental Science and Technology 50 (1): 79–88. Brulle, Richard, and David Pellow. 2006. “Environmental Justice: Human Health and Environmental Inequalities.” Annual Review of Public Health 27: 103–24. Chafe, Z. A., Brauer, M., Klimont, Z., Van Dingenen, R., Mehta, S., Rao, S., Riahi, K. Dentener, F. Smith, K.R. 2014. “Household Cooking with Solid Fuels Contributes to Ambient PM2.5 Air Pollution and the Burden of Disease.” Environmental Health Perspectives 122(12): 1314–1320. Chen, Dima, Zhichun Lan, Xue Bai, James Grace, and Yongfei Bai. 2013. “Evidence that AcidificationInduced Declines in Plant Diversity and Productivity Are Mediated by Changes in Below-Ground Communities and Soil Properties in a Semi-Arid Steppe.” Journal of Ecology 101: 1322–34. Chen, Stephen. 2014. “Agriculture Feels the Choke as China Smog Starts to Foster Disastrous Conditions.” South China Morning Post, February 25. http://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1434700/ china-smog-threatens-agriculture-nuclear-fallout-conditions-warn. Cropper, M., and S. Khanna. 2014. “How Should the World Bank Estimate Air Pollution Damages?” Discussion Paper No. 14-30, Resources for the Future, Washington, DC, September. Duprè, Cecilia, Carly Stevens, Traute Ranke, Albert Bleeker, Cord Peppler-Lisbach, David Gowing, Nancy Dise, et al. 2010. “Changes in Species Richness and Composition in European Acidic Grasslands Over the Past 70 Years: The Contribution of Cumulative Atmospheric Nitrogen Deposition.” Global Change Biology 16: 344–57. EIU (Economist Intelligence Unit). 2014. “A Summary of the Liveability Ranking and Overview.” http:// pages.eiu.com/rs/eiu2/images/Liveability_rankings_2014.pdf. GAHP (Global Alliance on Health and Pollution). 2013. “The Poisoned Poor: Toxic Chemicals Exposures in Low- and Middle-Income Countries.” New York. GBD 2013 Collaborators. 2015. “Global, Regional, and National Comparative Risk Assessment of 79 Behavioural, Environmental and Occupational, and Metabolic Risks or Clusters of Risks in 188 Countries, 1990–2013: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013.” The Lancet 396 (10010): 2287–2323. 1700234_Cost of Pollution.indd 8 8/29/16 1:55 PM
Grandjean,Philippe,and Philip Landrigan.2014."Neurobehavioral Effects of Developmental Toxicity." The Lancet Neurology 13:330-38. Greaver,Tara,Timothy Sullivan,Jeffrey Herrick,Mary Barber,Jill Baron,Bernard Cosby,Marion Deer- hake et al.2012."Ecological Effects of Nitrogen and Sulfur Air Pollution in the US:What Do We Know?"Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 10:365-72. Guan,Dabo,and Zhu Liu.2013.Tracing Back the Smog:Source Analysis and Control Strategies for PM, Pollution in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei.Beijing:China Environment Press. Katz,Cheryl.2012."Minorities,Poor Breathe Worse Air Pollution,Study Finds."Environmental Health News,November 4.http://www.environmentalhealthnews.org/ehs/news/2012/unequal-exposures. Lim,Stephen,Theo Vos,Abraham Flaxman,Goodarz Danaei,Kenji Shibuya,et al.2012."A Compara- tive Risk Assessment of Burden of Disease and Injury Attributable to 67 Risk Factors and Risk Factor Clusters in 21 Regions,1990-2010:A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010.”Lancet380:2224-60. Ma,Chunbo,and Ethan Schoolman.2011."Corrigendum to 'Who Bears the Environmental Burden in China-An Analysis of the Distribution of Industrial Pollution Sources?'[Ecological Economics 69 (2010)1869-1876]."Ecological Economics 70:569. Narain,Urvashi,and Chris Sall.2016."Methodology for Valuing the Health Impacts of Air Pollution: Discussion of Challenges and Proposed Solutions."Draft working paper,World Bank,Washington, DC,March. OMB(U.S.Office of Management and Budget).2015."2015 Report to Congress on the Benefits and Costs of Federal Regulations and Agency Compliance with the Unfunded Mandates Reform Act." https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/omb/inforeg/2015_cb/2015-cost-benefit-report .pdf. Pak,Jennifer.2013."Pollution Threatens Hong Kong's Competitiveness,"BBC,Hong Kong,16 January 2013,http://www.bbc.com/news/business-21038495. PEP (Poverty-Environment Partnership).2008."Poverty,Health Environment:Placing Environ- mental Health on Countries'Development Agendas.Joint agency paper by Asian Development Bank,Austrian Development Agency,German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development,Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark,Department for International Development, European Commission,Finland Ministry of Foreign Affairs,International Institute for Environ- ment and Development,Irish Aid,London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine,Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation,Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency, Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation,United Nations Development Programme,United Nations Environment Programme,Water Aid,World Bank,World Health Organization,and World Resources Institute. Peterson,Bradley,Virginia Rauh,Ravi Bansal,Xuejun Hao,Zachary Toth,Giancarlo Nati,Kirwan Walsh et al.2015."Effects of Prenatal Exposure to Air Pollutants(Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocar- bons)on Development of Brain White Matter,Cognition,and Behavior in Later Childhood.JAMA Psychiatry 72(6):531-40. Schoolman,Ethan,and Chunbo Ma.2012."Migration,Class,and Environmental Inequality:Exposure to Pollution in China's Jiangsu Province."Ecological Economics 75:140-151. Tang,Deliang,Joan Lee,Loren Muirhead,Tingyu Li,Lirong Qu,Jie Yu,and Frederica Perera.2014. "Molecular and Neurodevelopment Benefits to Children of Closure of a Coal Burning Power Plant in China."PLoS ONE 9(3):e91966. UN-HABITAT (United Nations Human Settlements Programme).2012.State of the World's Cities Report 2012/2013:Prosperity of Cities.Nairobi,Kenya:UN-HABITAT. Vishnevetsky,Julia,Deliang Tang,Hsin-Wen Chang,Emily Roen,Ya Wang,Virginia Rauh,Shuang Wang et al.2015."Combined Effects of Prenatal Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Material Hardship on Child IQ"Neurotoxicology and Teratology 49:74-80. The Cost of Air Pollution:Strengthening the Economic Case for Action 9
The Cost of Air Pollution: Strengthening the Economic Case for Action 9 Grandjean, Philippe, and Philip Landrigan. 2014. “Neurobehavioral Effects of Developmental Toxicity.” The Lancet Neurology 13: 330–38. Greaver, Tara, Timothy Sullivan, Jeffrey Herrick, Mary Barber, Jill Baron, Bernard Cosby, Marion Deerhake et al. 2012. “Ecological Effects of Nitrogen and Sulfur Air Pollution in the US: What Do We Know?” Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 10: 365–72. Guan, Dabo, and Zhu Liu. 2013. Tracing Back the Smog: Source Analysis and Control Strategies for PM2.5 Pollution in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei. Beijing: China Environment Press. Katz, Cheryl. 2012. “Minorities, Poor Breathe Worse Air Pollution, Study Finds.” Environmental Health News, November 4. http://www.environmentalhealthnews.org/ehs/news/2012/unequal-exposures. Lim, Stephen, Theo Vos, Abraham Flaxman, Goodarz Danaei, Kenji Shibuya, et al. 2012. “A Comparative Risk Assessment of Burden of Disease and Injury Attributable to 67 Risk Factors and Risk Factor Clusters in 21 Regions, 1990–2010: A Systematic Analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010.” Lancet 380: 2224–60. Ma, Chunbo, and Ethan Schoolman. 2011. “Corrigendum to ‘Who Bears the Environmental Burden in China—An Analysis of the Distribution of Industrial Pollution Sources?’ [Ecological Economics 69 (2010) 1869–1876].” Ecological Economics 70: 569. Narain, Urvashi, and Chris Sall. 2016. “Methodology for Valuing the Health Impacts of Air Pollution: Discussion of Challenges and Proposed Solutions.” Draft working paper, World Bank, Washington, DC, March. OMB (U.S. Office of Management and Budget). 2015. “2015 Report to Congress on the Benefits and Costs of Federal Regulations and Agency Compliance with the Unfunded Mandates Reform Act.” https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/omb/inforeg/2015_cb/2015-cost-benefit-report .pdf. Pak, Jennifer. 2013. “Pollution Threatens Hong Kong’s Competitiveness,” BBC, Hong Kong, 16 January 2013, http://www.bbc.com/news/business-21038495. PEP (Poverty-Environment Partnership). 2008. “Poverty, Health & Environment: Placing Environmental Health on Countries’ Development Agendas.” Joint agency paper by Asian Development Bank, Austrian Development Agency, German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark, Department for International Development, European Commission, Finland Ministry of Foreign Affairs, International Institute for Environment and Development, Irish Aid, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation, Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency, Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation, United Nations Development Programme, United Nations Environment Programme, Water Aid, World Bank, World Health Organization, and World Resources Institute. Peterson, Bradley, Virginia Rauh, Ravi Bansal, Xuejun Hao, Zachary Toth, Giancarlo Nati, Kirwan Walsh et al. 2015. “Effects of Prenatal Exposure to Air Pollutants (Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons) on Development of Brain White Matter, Cognition, and Behavior in Later Childhood.” JAMA Psychiatry 72 (6): 531–40. Schoolman, Ethan, and Chunbo Ma. 2012. “Migration, Class, and Environmental Inequality: Exposure to Pollution in China’s Jiangsu Province.” Ecological Economics 75: 140–151. Tang, Deliang, Joan Lee, Loren Muirhead, Tingyu Li, Lirong Qu, Jie Yu, and Frederica Perera. 2014. “Molecular and Neurodevelopment Benefits to Children of Closure of a Coal Burning Power Plant in China.” PLoS ONE 9 (3): e91966. UN-HABITAT (United Nations Human Settlements Programme). 2012. State of the World’s Cities Report 2012/2013: Prosperity of Cities. Nairobi, Kenya: UN-HABITAT. Vishnevetsky, Julia, Deliang Tang, Hsin-Wen Chang, Emily Roen, Ya Wang, Virginia Rauh, Shuang Wang et al. 2015. “Combined Effects of Prenatal Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Material Hardship on Child IQ.” Neurotoxicology and Teratology 49: 74–80. 1700234_Cost of Pollution.indd 9 8/29/16 1:55 PM
Wang,Xiaoping,and Denise Mauzerall.2004."Characterizing Distributions of Surface Ozone and Its Impact on Grain Production in China,Japan,and South Korea:1990 and 2020.Atmospheric Envi- ronment38(26):4383-402. Weiss,Bernard.1988."Neurobehavioral Toxicity as a Basis for Risk Assessment."Trends in Pharmaco- logical Sciences 9 (2):59-62. World Bank.2006.Poverty Environment Nexus:Sustainable Approaches to Poverty Reduction in Cambo- dia,Lao PDR,and Vietnam.Washington,DC:World Bank. .2016.Leveraging Urbanization in South Asia:Managing Spatial Prosperity and Livability.Wash- ington,DC:World Bank. World Bank-SEPA (World Bank and State Environmental Protection Agency,China).2007.Cost of Pollution in China:Economic Estimates of Physical Damages.Washington,DC:World Bank. Wright,John Paul,Kim Dietrich,M.Douglas Ris,Richard Hornung,Stephanie Wessel,Bruce Lan- phear,Mona Ho et al.2008."Association of Prenatal and Childhood Blood Lead Concentrations with Criminal Arrests in Early Adulthood."PLoS Medicine 5(5):el01. Zhao,Xiaoli,Sufang Zhang,and Chunyang Fan.2014."Environmental Externality and Inequality in China:Current Status and Future Choices."Environmental Pollution 190:176-79. Zheng,Siqi,Jing Cao,Matthew Kahn,and Cong Sun.2014a."Real Estate Valuation and Cross-Boundary Air Pollution Externalities:Evidence from Chinese Cities."Journal of Real Estate Finance and Eco- nomics48:398-414. Zheng,Siqi,Cong Sun,Ye Qi,and Matthew Kahn.2014b."The Evolving Geography of China's Indus- trial Production:Implications for Pollution Dynamics and Urban Quality of Life."Journal of Eco- nomic Surveys 28 (4):709-24. 10 The Cost of Air Pollution:Strengthening the Economic Case for Action
10 The Cost of Air Pollution: Strengthening the Economic Case for Action Wang, Xiaoping, and Denise Mauzerall. 2004. “Characterizing Distributions of Surface Ozone and Its Impact on Grain Production in China, Japan, and South Korea: 1990 and 2020.” Atmospheric Environment 38 (26): 4383–402. Weiss, Bernard. 1988. “Neurobehavioral Toxicity as a Basis for Risk Assessment.” Trends in Pharmacological Sciences 9 (2): 59–62. World Bank. 2006. Poverty Environment Nexus: Sustainable Approaches to Poverty Reduction in Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Vietnam. Washington, DC: World Bank. ______. 2016. Leveraging Urbanization in South Asia: Managing Spatial Prosperity and Livability. Washington, DC: World Bank. World Bank–SEPA (World Bank and State Environmental Protection Agency, China). 2007. Cost of Pollution in China: Economic Estimates of Physical Damages. Washington, DC: World Bank. Wright, John Paul, Kim Dietrich, M. Douglas Ris, Richard Hornung, Stephanie Wessel, Bruce Lanphear, Mona Ho et al. 2008. “Association of Prenatal and Childhood Blood Lead Concentrations with Criminal Arrests in Early Adulthood.” PLoS Medicine 5 (5): e101. Zhao, Xiaoli, Sufang Zhang, and Chunyang Fan. 2014. “Environmental Externality and Inequality in China: Current Status and Future Choices.” Environmental Pollution 190: 176–79. Zheng, Siqi, Jing Cao, Matthew Kahn, and Cong Sun. 2014a. “Real Estate Valuation and Cross-Boundary Air Pollution Externalities: Evidence from Chinese Cities.” Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics 48: 398–414. Zheng, Siqi, Cong Sun, Ye Qi, and Matthew Kahn. 2014b. “The Evolving Geography of China’s Industrial Production: Implications for Pollution Dynamics and Urban Quality of Life.” Journal of Economic Surveys 28 (4): 709–24. 1700234_Cost of Pollution.indd 10 8/29/16 1:55 PM
2.Health Impacts of Air Pollution Introduction The Global Burden of Disease Study 2013(GBD 2013 Collaborators 2015)estimates the bur- den of disease attributable to air pollution in 188 countries from 1990 to 2013.The results of this study are presented in this chapter.The health impacts of air pollution include disease and illnesses caused by exposure to ambient concentrations of fine particulate matter(PM,), indoor concentrations of PM,in households cooking with solid fuels,and ambient ozone pollution.The study covers both urban and rural areas and measures changes in the disease burden of air pollution over the extended study period (1990-2013).Global coverage is achieved by integrating data from a wide variety of sources. The first part of this chapter describes the process of estimating the disease burden attribut- able to air pollution.The process begins by measuring the severity of air pollution and the extent to which people who live in areas with poor ambient air quality or in households cook- ing with solid fuels are exposed to this pollution.The study then evaluates how personal expo- sure raises people's relative risk of contracting illnesses such as ischemic heart disease(IHD), stroke,chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD),lung cancer,acute lower respiratory infections(LRIs),and pneumonia.Elevated risk among the exposed population translates into a higher portion of deaths from these conditions each year,which are attributed to air pollution. The second part of the chapter discusses trends in exposure to ambient and household air pollution as well as the resulting health impacts.It reveals that air pollution is ranked fourth in the risk factors leading to premature death worldwide. Method for Satellite-and Model-Derived Estimates of Ambient Air Pollution Use of Satellite-Based Estimates for a Global Assessment To make the greatest use of multiple and complementary sources of information in the most reasonable way possible,the GBD approach to estimating ambient air pollution combines data from ground monitoring with satellite observations and chemical transport models.In doing so,the GBD estimates provide a consistent global picture and trend of exposure to ambient PM,which could not be constructed on the basis of any one source of data. Although important for country-and city-level air quality planning,public communication, and regulatory compliance,ground-level measurements alone are not sufficient to provide global coverage to estimate exposure because of the spatial biases in the availability of ground- level measurements,the differences in measurement approaches among jurisdictions,and the absence of details about measurement data in some instances.Ground-level measurements of air pollution,particularly PM,s are unavailable in much of the world,and especially in many The Cost of Air Pollution:Strengthening the Economic Case for Action 11
The Cost of Air Pollution: Strengthening the Economic Case for Action 11 2. Health Impacts of Air Pollution Introduction The Global Burden of Disease Study 2013 (GBD 2013 Collaborators 2015) estimates the burden of disease attributable to air pollution in 188 countries from 1990 to 2013. The results of this study are presented in this chapter. The health impacts of air pollution include disease and illnesses caused by exposure to ambient concentrations of fine particulate matter (PM2.5 ), indoor concentrations of PM2.5 in households cooking with solid fuels, and ambient ozone pollution. The study covers both urban and rural areas and measures changes in the disease burden of air pollution over the extended study period (1990–2013). Global coverage is achieved by integrating data from a wide variety of sources. The first part of this chapter describes the process of estimating the disease burden attributable to air pollution. The process begins by measuring the severity of air pollution and the extent to which people who live in areas with poor ambient air quality or in households cooking with solid fuels are exposed to this pollution. The study then evaluates how personal exposure raises people’s relative risk of contracting illnesses such as ischemic heart disease (IHD), stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), lung cancer, acute lower respiratory infections (LRIs), and pneumonia. Elevated risk among the exposed population translates into a higher portion of deaths from these conditions each year, which are attributed to air pollution. The second part of the chapter discusses trends in exposure to ambient and household air pollution as well as the resulting health impacts. It reveals that air pollution is ranked fourth in the risk factors leading to premature death worldwide. Method for Satellite- and Model-Derived Estimates of Ambient Air Pollution Use of Satellite-Based Estimates for a Global Assessment To make the greatest use of multiple and complementary sources of information in the most reasonable way possible, the GBD approach to estimating ambient air pollution combines data from ground monitoring with satellite observations and chemical transport models. In doing so, the GBD estimates provide a consistent global picture and trend of exposure to ambient PM2.5 , which could not be constructed on the basis of any one source of data. Although important for country- and city-level air quality planning, public communication, and regulatory compliance, ground-level measurements alone are not sufficient to provide global coverage to estimate exposure because of the spatial biases in the availability of groundlevel measurements, the differences in measurement approaches among jurisdictions, and the absence of details about measurement data in some instances. Ground-level measurements of air pollution, particularly PM2.5 , are unavailable in much of the world, and especially in many 1700234_Cost of Pollution.indd 11 8/29/16 1:55 PM