《环境政策与管理》课程教学资源：The Cost of Air Pollution（World Bank 2016）

The Cost of Air Pollution Strengthening the Economic Case for Action WORLD BANK GROUP IHME

The Cost of Air Pollution Strengthening the Economic Case for Action 1700234_Cost of Pollution_Cvr.indd 1 8/26/16 10:16 AM Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized

Contents Foreword...... ...vii Acknowledgments.… Abbreviatic0ns.… Executive Summary… X 1 Introduction................................. .1 Air Pollution:A Threat to Sustainable Prosperity 1 The Focus of This Report.…… ￥ > The Context for This Report................................................... Notes.……………… 8 References .................................... 2 Health Impacts of Air Pollution.............................................11 Introduction................................................................11 Method for Satellite-and Model-Derived Estimates of Ambient Air Pollution 11 Method for Estimating Exposure to Household Air Pollution from Cooking with Solid Fuels.................. 16 Method for Estimating Health Outcomes from Ambient and Household Air Pollution Exposure...................................................18 Trends in Exposure and Health Impacts from Ambient and Household Air Pollution.............................................................22 Trends in Ambient Air Pollution Exposure and Health Impacts.................... 25 Trends in Household Air Pollution Exposure and Health Impacts..................35 The Evolution of GBD Estimates..............................................42 44 References........... 45 3 Economic Impacts of Air Pollution.......................................... 47 ntroduction.………… 47 Methods and Data........................................................... 47 Results:Welfare Losses and Forgone Labor Output...............................50 Alternative Scenarios and Sensitivity Analysis of Uncertain Parameters............. 60 Notes......................................................................74 References........................................75 4 A Synthesis and the Way Forward...........................................78 Air Pollution:A Costly and Persistent Challenge.................................78 Ambient Air Pollution:A Growing Challenge................................... 79 Indoor Air Pollution:A Remaining Challenge Despite Some Gains.................79 TheWayForward...........................................................80 Improving Estimates................. 82 87 八、、、]0 References........................................................8 The Cost of Air Pollution:Strengthening the Economic Case for Action 讯

The Cost of Air Pollution: Strengthening the Economic Case for Action iii Contents Foreword......................................................................................................................................... vii Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... viii Abbreviations................................................................................................................................... ix Executive Summary ......................................................................................................................... x 1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 Air Pollution: A Threat to Sustainable Prosperity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 The Focus of This Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 The Context for This Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 2 Health Impacts of Air Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Method for Satellite- and Model-Derived Estimates of Ambient Air Pollution . . . . . . . . 11 Method for Estimating Exposure to Household Air Pollution from Cooking with Solid Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Method for Estimating Health Outcomes from Ambient and Household Air Pollution Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Trends in Exposure and Health Impacts from Ambient and Household Air Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Trends in Ambient Air Pollution Exposure and Health Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Trends in Household Air Pollution Exposure and Health Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 The Evolution of GBD Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 3 Economic Impacts of Air Pollution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Methods and Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Results: Welfare Losses and Forgone Labor Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Alternative Scenarios and Sensitivity Analysis of Uncertain Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 4 A Synthesis and the Way Forward. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Air Pollution: A Costly and Persistent Challenge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Ambient Air Pollution: A Growing Challenge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Indoor Air Pollution: A Remaining Challenge Despite Some Gains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 The Way Forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Improving Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 1700234_Cost of Pollution.indd 3 8/29/16 1:55 PM

Appendixes A Supplementary Materials on Health Impacts. 88 B Country Data.. 92 Boxes 1.1 Air Pollution:Harming Countries'Economies in Many Ways......... 5 1.2 Using an Air Quality Management Study and Economic Valuation to Help Ulaanbaatar Forge a Strategy to Combat Air Pollution..........................6 1.3 Accounting for the Costs and Benefits of Air Pollution Control in the United States........................................................6 2.1 Dust and Dust Storm Health Effects.........................................13 2.2 Underestimation of Ground Measurements in Locations with High Concentrations.................................................15 2.3 Integrated Exposure-Response(IER)........................................19 4.1 Transport:Valuing the Health Impacts of Air Pollution in Transport Project Cost-Benefit Analyses......................................................81 4.2 Morocco:Using Ground-Level and Satellite Data to Estimate the Cost of Air Pollution.........................83 4.3 China:Estimating the Impact of Pollution Sources on Disease Burden...........84 4.4 Mexico:Subnational Estimates Matter.......................................85 Figures ES.1 Welfare Losses Due to Air Pollution by Region,2013..........................xii ES.2 Welfare Losses from Ambient PM,and Household Air Pollution in Low- and Middle-Income Countries,1990-2013...................................xiii 1.1 Percentage of Attributable Deaths by Risk Factor:Globally,2013.................1 1.2 Percentage of Attributable Deaths by Risk Factor:Low-,Lower-Middle-Income, and Upper-Middle-Income Countries,2013...................................3 B2.2.1 Calibration Regression Simple(Pink)versus Advanced(Green)Model by Super-.Region.…l5 2.1 Integrated Exposure-Response(IER)Functions for Ischemic Heart Disease(a), Stroke(b),Lung Cancer and COPD(c),and Lower Respiratory Infections(d).....20 2.2 Total Deaths from Air Pollution by Region,2013..............................23 2.3 Percentage of Total Deaths from Air Pollution by Region,2013.... 23 2.4 Percentage of Total Deaths from Air Pollution by Income Group,2013...........24 2.5 Total Deaths from Ambient PM,Pollution by Region,1990 and 2013...........28 2.6 Leading Modifiable Risks by Number of Deaths:Globally,1990 and 2013.........29 2.7 Trends in Ischemic Heart Disease Death Rates from Ambient PM,Pollution, 1990-2013...29 2.8 Deaths per 100,000 People from Ambient PM,Pollution by Region, 1990and2013.............................30 2.9 Total Deaths(a)and Disability-Adjusted Life Years(DALYs)(b)from Ambient PMs Pollution by Age Group,2013....................33 2.10 Percentage of Total Deaths from Ambient PM,Pollution by Income Group, 1990and2013...........................34 iv The Cost of Air Pollution:Strengthening the Economic Case for Action

iv The Cost of Air Pollution: Strengthening the Economic Case for Action Appendixes A Supplementary Materials on Health Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 B Country Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Boxes 1.1 Air Pollution: Harming Countries’ Economies in Many Ways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.2 Using an Air Quality Management Study and Economic Valuation to Help Ulaanbaatar Forge a Strategy to Combat Air Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 1.3 Accounting for the Costs and Benefits of Air Pollution Control in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 2.1 Dust and Dust Storm Health Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2.2 Underestimation of Ground Measurements in Locations with High Concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.3 Integrated Exposure-Response (IER) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 4.1 Transport: Valuing the Health Impacts of Air Pollution in Transport Project Cost-Benefit Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 4.2 Morocco: Using Ground-Level and Satellite Data to Estimate the Cost of Air Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 4.3 China: Estimating the Impact of Pollution Sources on Disease Burden . . . . . . . . . . . 84 4.4 Mexico: Subnational Estimates Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Figures ES.1 Welfare Losses Due to Air Pollution by Region, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xii ES.2 Welfare Losses from Ambient PM2.5 and Household Air Pollution in Low￾and Middle-Income Countries, 1990–2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii 1.1 Percentage of Attributable Deaths by Risk Factor: Globally, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2 Percentage of Attributable Deaths by Risk Factor: Low-, Lower-Middle-Income, and Upper-Middle-Income Countries, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 B2.2.1 Calibration Regression Simple (Pink) versus Advanced (Green) Model by Super-Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.1 Integrated Exposure-Response (IER) Functions for Ischemic Heart Disease (a), Stroke (b), Lung Cancer and COPD (c), and Lower Respiratory Infections (d). . . . . 20 2.2 Total Deaths from Air Pollution by Region, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 2.3 Percentage of Total Deaths from Air Pollution by Region, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 2.4 Percentage of Total Deaths from Air Pollution by Income Group, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . 24 2.5 Total Deaths from Ambient PM2.5 Pollution by Region, 1990 and 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2.6 Leading Modifiable Risks by Number of Deaths: Globally, 1990 and 2013 . . . . . . . . . 29 2.7 Trends in Ischemic Heart Disease Death Rates from Ambient PM2.5 Pollution, 1990–2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2.8 Deaths per 100,000 People from Ambient PM2.5 Pollution by Region, 1990 and 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 2.9 Total Deaths (a) and Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) (b) from Ambient PM2.5 Pollution by Age Group, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 2.10 Percentage of Total Deaths from Ambient PM2.5 Pollution by Income Group, 1990 and 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 1700234_Cost of Pollution.indd 4 9/2/16 9:59 AM

2.11 Ambient PM,Death Rate versus Income per Capita,2013.....................34 2.12 Total Deaths from Ambient Ozone Pollution by Region,1990 and 2013..........35 2.13 Total Deaths(a)and Deaths per 100,000 People(b)from Household Air Pollution,1990-2013.... 37 2.14 Deaths from Ischemic Heart Disease Attributable to Exposure to Household Air Pollution by Age Category for Males and Females,2013........................ 38 2.15 Deaths per 100,000 People by Age Group,1990 and 2013.......................40 2.16 Total Deaths(a)and Deaths per 100,000 People(b)from Household Air Pollution by Region,1990 and 2013...................................... 41 2.17 Total Deaths(a)and Deaths per 100,000 People(b)from Household Air Pollution by Income Group,1990 and 2013...............................42 2.18 Household PM,Death Rate versus Gross National Income(GNI) perCapita,2013.......................................................... 43 3.1 Welfare Losses Due to Air Pollution by Region,2013..........................52 3.2 Forgone Labor Output Due to Air Pollution by Region,2013...................52 3.3 Age Profile of Total Deaths and Welfare Losses Due to Air Pollution by Region, 1990and2013....… .53 3.4 Age Profile of Total Forgone Labor Output Due to Air Pollution by Region, 1990and2013.............54 3.5 Welfare Losses Due to Air Pollution by Income Group,2013..... 54 3.6 Decomposing Changes in Total Welfare Losses Due to Air Pollution,by Income Group:1990-2013...............57 3.7 Changes in Ambient PM,Death Rates and Per Capita Welfare Losses by Income Group,1990-2013.......... 3.8 Changes in Household PM,.Death Rates and Per Capita Welfare Losses by Income Group,.1990-2013....................59 3.9 Breakdown of Changes in Total Forgone Labor Output Due to Air Pollution by Income Group,1990-2013........ ….61 3.10 Age Profile of Welfare Losses from Air Pollution as Estimated Using VSL versus VSLY2013..64 3.11 Uncertainty in Welfare Loss Parameters:Low-Income Countries,2013...........68 3.12 Uncertainty in Welfare Loss Parameters:Lower-Middle-Income Countries,2013..69 3.13 Uncertainty in Welfare Loss Parameters:Upper-Middle-Income Countries,2013..69 3.14 Uncertainty in Welfare Loss Parameters:High-Income Non-OECD Countries,2013.........................70 3.15 Uncertainty in Welfare Loss Parameters:High-Income OECD Countries,2013....70 3.16 Uncertainty in Forgone Labor Output Parameters:Low-Income Countries,2013..72 3.17 Uncertainty in Forgone Labor Output Parameters:Lower-Middle-Income Countries,,2013.............................72 3.18 Uncertainty in Forgone Labor Output Parameters:Upper-Middle-Income Countries,.2013.........… ..73 3.19 Uncertainty in Forgone Labor Output Parameters:High-Income Non-OECD Countries,,2013............ …73 3.20 Uncertainty in Forgone Labor Output Parameters:High-Income OECD Countries,2013.... .74 B4.3.1 Deaths Attributable to Ambient PM,Pollution in China,by Source of Emissions,.2013............... 84 The Cost of Air Pollution:Strengthening the Economic Case for Action

The Cost of Air Pollution: Strengthening the Economic Case for Action v 2.11 Ambient PM2.5 Death Rate versus Income per Capita, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 2.12 Total Deaths from Ambient Ozone Pollution by Region, 1990 and 2013 . . . . . . . . . . 35 2.13 Total Deaths (a) and Deaths per 100,000 People (b) from Household Air Pollution, 1990–2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 2.14 Deaths from Ischemic Heart Disease Attributable to Exposure to Household Air Pollution by Age Category for Males and Females, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 2.15 Deaths per 100,000 People by Age Group, 1990 and 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 2.16 Total Deaths (a) and Deaths per 100,000 People (b) from Household Air Pollution by Region, 1990 and 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 2.17 Total Deaths (a) and Deaths per 100,000 People (b) from Household Air Pollution by Income Group, 1990 and 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 2.18 Household PM2.5 Death Rate versus Gross National Income (GNI) per Capita, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 3.1 Welfare Losses Due to Air Pollution by Region, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 3.2 Forgone Labor Output Due to Air Pollution by Region, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 3.3 Age Profile of Total Deaths and Welfare Losses Due to Air Pollution by Region, 1990 and 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 3.4 Age Profile of Total Forgone Labor Output Due to Air Pollution by Region, 1990 and 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 3.5 Welfare Losses Due to Air Pollution by Income Group, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 3.6 Decomposing Changes in Total Welfare Losses Due to Air Pollution, by Income Group: 1990–2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 3.7 Changes in Ambient PM2.5 Death Rates and Per Capita Welfare Losses by Income Group, 1990–2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 3.8 Changes in Household PM2.5 Death Rates and Per Capita Welfare Losses by Income Group, 1990–2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 3.9 Breakdown of Changes in Total Forgone Labor Output Due to Air Pollution by Income Group, 1990–2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 3.10 Age Profile of Welfare Losses from Air Pollution as Estimated Using VSL versus VSLY, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 3.11 Uncertainty in Welfare Loss Parameters: Low-Income Countries, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . 68 3.12 Uncertainty in Welfare Loss Parameters: Lower-Middle-Income Countries, 2013 . . 69 3.13 Uncertainty in Welfare Loss Parameters: Upper-Middle-Income Countries, 2013 . . 69 3.14 Uncertainty in Welfare Loss Parameters: High-Income Non-OECD Countries, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 3.15 Uncertainty in Welfare Loss Parameters: High-Income OECD Countries, 2013 . . . . 70 3.16 Uncertainty in Forgone Labor Output Parameters: Low-Income Countries, 2013 . . 72 3.17 Uncertainty in Forgone Labor Output Parameters: Lower-Middle-Income Countries, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 3.18 Uncertainty in Forgone Labor Output Parameters: Upper-Middle-Income Countries, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 3.19 Uncertainty in Forgone Labor Output Parameters: High-Income Non-OECD Countries, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 3.20 Uncertainty in Forgone Labor Output Parameters: High-Income OECD Countries, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 B4.3.1 Deaths Attributable to Ambient PM2.5 Pollution in China, by Source of Emissions, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 1700234_Cost of Pollution.indd 5 8/29/16 1:55 PM

Maps 2.1 Locations Where 2013 Annual Average PM,Concentrations(ug/m3)Meet or Exceed World Health Organization's(WHO)Air Quality Guidelines or Exceed Interim Targets.................................................... 26 2.2 Ratio of Estimated 2013:1990 Annual Average PM,Concentrations at 0.1X 0.1 Resolution.. 27 2.3 Age-Standardized Death Rates from Ambient PM,Pollution,2013.............32 2.4 Age-Standardized Death Rates from Household Air Pollution,2013 39 B4.4.1 Deaths per 100,000 Persons Attributable to Air Pollution at the Provincial Level: Mexico,2013.......… 85 A.1 Differences in Grid-Cell Estimates of(2011)Annual Average PM,s Concentrations from TM5-FASST and from Satellite-Based Estimates...........89 Tables 3.1 Working Life Expectancy for 15-and 40-Year-Olds by Region,2013.............51 3.2 Working Life Expectancy for 15-and 40-Year-Olds by Income Group,2013.......51 3.3 Total Welfare Losses from Air Pollution,by Region:1990-2013................. 3.4 Welfare Losses from Ambient PM,,by Region:1990-2013.....................55 3.5 Welfare Losses from Household Air Pollution,by Region:1990-2013............55 3.6 Total Forgone Labor Output from Air Pollution,by Region:1990-2013..........59 3.7 Forgone Labor Output from Ambient PM,s,by Region:1990-2013......... 3.8 Forgone Labor Output from Household Air Pollution,by Region:1990-2013.....60 3.9 Total Welfare Losses from Air Pollution,VSL-versus VSLY-Based Estimates, by Region:2013.............................63 3.10 Total Welfare Losses from Air Pollution,VSL-versus VSLY-Based Estimates, by Income Group:20l3..................64 3.11 Total Welfare Losses from Air Pollution in Low-and Middle-Income Countries, Base Case VSL Estimates versus Using VSL from Middle-Income Country Studies:20l3...… .65 3.12 Total Welfare Losses from Air Pollution in Base Case Estimates versus Alternate Scenario Using a Base VSL in Line with That Assumed by U.S.Regulatory Agencies,by Income Group:2013...........................................66 3.13 Total Welfare Losses from Air Pollution in Base Case Estimates versus Alternate Scenario Using a Base VSL in Line with That Assumed by U.S.Regulatory Agencies,by Income Group:2013...........................................67 B4.2.1 Comparison of Ambient PM,Concentrations from Ground-Level Monitors and Satellite Observations at the City Level...................................83 A.1 Regions Included in GBD 2013 Ambient Air Pollution PM,Mapping Database...88 A.2 Countries and Regions Included in GBD 2013 Household Air Pollution PM.s Mapping Database......................88 B.1 Mean Annual PM,,Total Deaths from Pollution,Total Welfare Losses,and Total Forgone Labor Output,by Country......... vi The Cost of Air Pollution:Strengthening the Economic Case for Action

vi The Cost of Air Pollution: Strengthening the Economic Case for Action Maps 2.1 Locations Where 2013 Annual Average PM2.5 Concentrations (μg/m3 ) Meet or Exceed World Health Organization's (WHO) Air Quality Guidelines or Exceed Interim Targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 2.2 Ratio of Estimated 2013:1990 Annual Average PM2.5 Concentrations at 0.1° 3 0.1° Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.3 Age-Standardized Death Rates from Ambient PM2.5 Pollution, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 2.4 Age-Standardized Death Rates from Household Air Pollution, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 B4.4.1 Deaths per 100,000 Persons Attributable to Air Pollution at the Provincial Level: Mexico, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 A.1 Differences in Grid-Cell Estimates of (2011) Annual Average PM2.5 Concentrations from TM5-FASST and from Satellite-Based Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Tables 3.1 Working Life Expectancy for 15- and 40-Year-Olds by Region, 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 3.2 Working Life Expectancy for 15- and 40-Year-Olds by Income Group, 2013 . . . . . . . 51 3.3 Total Welfare Losses from Air Pollution, by Region: 1990–2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 3.4 Welfare Losses from Ambient PM2.5 , by Region: 1990–2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 3.5 Welfare Losses from Household Air Pollution, by Region: 1990–2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 3.6 Total Forgone Labor Output from Air Pollution, by Region: 1990–2013 . . . . . . . . . . 59 3.7 Forgone Labor Output from Ambient PM2.5 , by Region: 1990–2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 3.8 Forgone Labor Output from Household Air Pollution, by Region: 1990–2013 . . . . . 60 3.9 Total Welfare Losses from Air Pollution, VSL- versus VSLY-Based Estimates, by Region: 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 3.10 Total Welfare Losses from Air Pollution, VSL- versus VSLY-Based Estimates, by Income Group: 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 3.11 Total Welfare Losses from Air Pollution in Low- and Middle-Income Countries, Base Case VSL Estimates versus Using VSL from Middle-Income Country Studies: 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 3.12 Total Welfare Losses from Air Pollution in Base Case Estimates versus Alternate Scenario Using a Base VSL in Line with That Assumed by U.S. Regulatory Agencies, by Income Group: 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 3.13 Total Welfare Losses from Air Pollution in Base Case Estimates versus Alternate Scenario Using a Base VSL in Line with That Assumed by U.S. Regulatory Agencies, by Income Group: 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 B4.2.1 Comparison of Ambient PM2.5 Concentrations from Ground-Level Monitors and Satellite Observations at the City Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 A.1 Regions Included in GBD 2013 Ambient Air Pollution PM2.5 Mapping Database . . . 88 A.2 Countries and Regions Included in GBD 2013 Household Air Pollution PM2.5 Mapping Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 B.1 Mean Annual PM2.5 , Total Deaths from Pollution, Total Welfare Losses, and Total Forgone Labor Output, by Country . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 1700234_Cost of Pollution.indd 6 8/29/16 1:55 PM