vili Contents 2.5 Functional claims 2.6 Packaging 2.7 Labelling 2.8 Manufacture 2.9 References 3 US legislation and functional health claims 43 M.K. Schmidl and T.P. Labuza, University of minnesota 3.1 Introducti 43 .2 Definitions 3.3 Nutrient modification and specific nutrient claims 3.4 Disease-specific or disease-prevention(health) claims 3.5 The Food and Drug Administration Modernization Act 1997 3.6 Medical food 3. 7 The Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act 1994 3.8 The controversy over labeling 3.9 Advertising and the Federal Trade Commission 3.11 Further reading 67666⑦7 3.12 References Part I Functional foods and health 4 Colonic functional foods R.A. Rastall (University of Reading, R. Fuller(Russett House, Reading, H.R. Gaskins(University of Illinois, Champaign, Urbana) nd G.R. Gibson(University of Reading 4.1 4.2 What are colonic functional food How are colonic foods metabolised? 4.4 Probiotics 75 4.5 Prebiotics 4.6 Synbiotics 4.7 Health aspects of functional colonic foods 4.8 Host-microbe interaction 4.9 Conclusion 4.10 Reference 5 Coronary heart diseas J.A. Lovegrove and K.G. Jackson, University of reading 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Coronary heart disease and risk factors 5.3 Relevant lipid particles 104 5.4 Diet and coronary heart disease: the evidence 5.5 Effects of probiotics on blood lipids: the evidence
2.5 Functional claims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 2.6 Packaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 2.7 Labelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 2.8 Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 2.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3 US legislation and functional health claims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 M.K. Schmidl and T.P. Labuza, University of Minnesota 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 3.2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 3.3 Nutrient modification and specific nutrient claims . . . . . . . . . . . 46 3.4 Disease-specific or disease-prevention (health) claims . . . . . . . 47 3.5 The Food and Drug Administration Modernization Act 1997 55 3.6 Medical foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 3.7 The Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act 1994 . . . 57 3.8 The controversy over labeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 3.9 Advertising and the Federal Trade Commission . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 3.10 Future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 3.11 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 3.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Part II Functional foods and health 4 Colonic functional foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 R.A. Rastall (University of Reading), R. Fuller (Russett House, Reading), H.R. Gaskins (University of Illinois, Champaign, Urbana) and G.R. Gibson (University of Reading) 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 4.2 What are colonic functional foods? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 4.3 How are colonic foods metabolised? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 4.4 Probiotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 4.5 Prebiotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 4.6 Synbiotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 4.7 Health aspects of functional colonic foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 4.8 Host–microbe interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 4.9 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 4.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 5 Coronary heart disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 J.A. Lovegrove and K.G. Jackson, University of Reading 5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 5.2 Coronary heart disease and risk factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 5.3 Relevant lipid particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 5.4 Diet and coronary heart disease: the evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 5.5 Effects of probiotics on blood lipids: the evidence . . . . . . . . . . 118 viii Contents
Contents 5.6 The effects of prebiotics on coronary heart disease 5.7 The effects of synbiotics on coronary heart disease 130 5. 8 Future trends 5.9 Sources of further information and advice 5.10 References 132 6 Anti-tumour properties 141 .T. Johnson, Institute of Food Research, Norwich 6.1 Introduction 141 6.2 The nature of tumour growth 6.3 Models of carcinogenesis 145 6.4 Diet and gene interactions 146 6.5 Mechanisms of action: nutrients 6.6 Mechanisms of action: phytochemicals 6.7 Mechanisms of action: other factors 156 6.8 Conclusion: the role of functional food 6.9 Future trends 6.10 Sources of further information and advice 160 6 References 7 Functional foods and acute infections: probiotics and gastrointestinal disorders 167 E. Isolauri and S. Salminen, University of Turku 7 Introduction 167 7.2 The background 7.3 Probiotics and the immune system 17 7.4 Probiotic functional foods and the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders 7.5 Future trends 176 7.6 Sources of further information and advice 7.7 References Part Ill Developing functional food products 8 Maximising the functional benefits of plant foods D G. Lindsay, Institute of Food Research, Norwich 8.1 Introduction 8.2 The concept of functionality 8.3 Functional effects deliverable by plants 185 8.4 Plant sources of functional compounds 8.5 The delivery of functional effects 8.6 Enhancing functional effects 8.7 Factors affecting the intake of functional compounds 8899 8.8 Enhancing macronutrient quality 8.9 Enhancing micronutrient quality
5.6 The effects of prebiotics on coronary heart disease . . . . . . . . . . 124 5.7 The effects of synbiotics on coronary heart disease . . . . . . . . . . 130 5.8 Future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 5.9 Sources of further information and advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 5.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 6 Anti-tumour properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 I.T. Johnson, Institute of Food Research, Norwich 6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 6.2 The nature of tumour growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 6.3 Models of carcinogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 6.4 Diet and gene interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 6.5 Mechanisms of action: nutrients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 6.6 Mechanisms of action: phytochemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 6.7 Mechanisms of action: other factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 6.8 Conclusion: the role of functional food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 6.9 Future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 6.10 Sources of further information and advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 6.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 7 Functional foods and acute infections: probiotics and gastrointestinal disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 E. Isolauri and S. Salminen, University of Turku 7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 7.2 The background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 7.3 Probiotics and the immune system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 7.4 Probiotic functional foods and the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 7.5 Future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 7.6 Sources of further information and advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 7.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Part III Developing functional food products 8 Maximising the functional benefits of plant foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 D.G. Lindsay, Institute of Food Research, Norwich 8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 8.2 The concept of functionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 8.3 Functional effects deliverable by plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 8.4 Plant sources of functional compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 8.5 The delivery of functional effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 8.6 Enhancing functional effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 8.7 Factors affecting the intake of functional compounds . . . . . . . . 192 8.8 Enhancing macronutrient quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 8.9 Enhancing micronutrient quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Contents ix
x Contents 8.10 The effects of food processing 8.11 Future trends. the work of neodiet 8.12 References 205 9 Developing functional ingredients: a case study 209 A.-S. Sandberg, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg 9. 1 Introduction: the nutritional properties of peas 209 9.2 Improving pea protein 9.3 Processing issues in improving pea protein 213 9.4 Adding improved protein to food products 9.5 Evaluating the functional and sensory properties of improved pea protein in food products 217 9.6 Future trends: the work of NUTriPea 9.7 Sources of further information and advice 9.8 References 10 Functional fats and spreads 233 E.A.M de decker and p.M verschuren. Unilever Research Vlaardingen 10.1 Introduction 233 10.2 Functional ingredients and chronic diseases: applications in ats and spreads 10.3 Fatty acids 234 10.4 Spreads containing fish oil 10.5 Modified fats and oils 10.6 Phytosterols 10.7 Antioxidants 10.8 Low(zero)fat spreads 24 10.9 Inulin 10.10 Calcium 249 10.11 Conclusions 10.12 Reference 11 Functional confectionery 259 E F. Pickford and N. Jardine, Nestle Product Technology Centre, York 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Types of functional confectionery 11.3 The current market in functional confectionery 261 11.4 The development and manufacture of functional confectionery 268 11.5 Marketing and retailing functional confectionery 11.6 Summary 7 References 285
8.10 The effects of food processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 8.11 Future trends: the work of NEODIET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 8.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 9 Developing functional ingredients: a case study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 A.-S. Sandberg, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg 9.1 Introduction: the nutritional properties of peas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 9.2 Improving pea protein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 9.3 Processing issues in improving pea protein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 9.4 Adding improved protein to food products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 9.5 Evaluating the functional and sensory properties of improved pea protein in food products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 9.6 Future trends: the work of NUTRIPEA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 9.7 Sources of further information and advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 9.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 10 Functional fats and spreads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 E.A.M. de Deckere and P.M. Verschuren, Unilever Research, Vlaardingen 10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 10.2 Functional ingredients and chronic diseases: applications in fats and spreads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 10.3 Fatty acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 10.4 Spreads containing fish oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 10.5 Modified fats and oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 10.6 Phytosterols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 10.7 Antioxidants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 10.8 Low (zero) fat spreads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 10.9 Inulin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 10.10 Calcium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 10.11 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 10.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 11 Functional confectionery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 E.F. Pickford and N.J. Jardine, Nestle´ Product Technology Centre, York 11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 11.2 Types of functional confectionery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 11.3 The current market in functional confectionery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 11.4 The development and manufacture of functional confectionery products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 11.5 Marketing and retailing functional confectionery . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 11.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 11.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 x Contents
12 Probiotic functional foods T. Mattila-Sandholm and M. Saarela, ITT Biotechnology, Espoo 12. 1 Introduction: the health benefits of probiotic foods 12.2 Selecting probiotic strains 12.3 Pilot testing in clinical human trials 297 12. 4 Processing issues in developing probiotic foods 12.5 Future trends 12.6 Sources of further information and advice 12.7 References 13 Dietary fibre functional products 315 F. Guillon (URPOl, Centre de Recherches INRA, Nantes), M. Champ (UFDNH, Centre de Recherches INRA, Nantes, and J.-F. Thibault (URPOL, Centre de Recherches INRA, Nantes) 13.1 Introduction 315 13.2 Defining dietary fibre 16 13.3 Sources of dietary fibre 13.4 Processing dietary fibre ingredients 13.5 Processing foods containing dietary fibre 337 13.6 The physiological effects of dietary fibre 340 13.7 Recommended intakes of dietary fibre 350 13. 8 Conclusions and future trends 13.9 Bibliography 355 ndex
12 Probiotic functional foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 T. Mattila-Sandholm and M. Saarela, VTT Biotechnology, Espoo 12.1 Introduction: the health benefits of probiotic foods . . . . . . . . . . 287 12.2 Selecting probiotic strains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292 12.3 Pilot testing in clinical human trials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 12.4 Processing issues in developing probiotic foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 12.5 Future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 12.6 Sources of further information and advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 12.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 13 Dietary fibre functional products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 F. Guillon (URPOI, Centre de Recherches INRA, Nantes), M. Champ (UFDNH, Centre de Recherches INRA, Nantes), and J.-F. Thibault (URPOI, Centre de Recherches INRA, Nantes) 13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 13.2 Defining dietary fibre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 13.3 Sources of dietary fibre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 13.4 Processing dietary fibre ingredients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 13.5 Processing foods containing dietary fibre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 13.6 The physiological effects of dietary fibre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 13.7 Recommended intakes of dietary fibre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350 13.8 Conclusions and future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 13.9 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 Index . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 Contents xi
Introduction Defining functional foods What are functional foods? The complexities involved in definition are a key theme in Chapter 1 of this book. This suggests the following working definition which seeks to isolate the significance of both functional, 'food' in our understanding of the term A food can be regarded asfunctional' if it is satisfactorily demon- strated to affect beneficially one or more target functions in the body, beyond adequate nutrition, in a way that improves health and well-being or reduces the risk of disease This definition suggests that a product must remain a food to be included within he category. On this basis a functional food can be · a natural food a food to which a positive component has been added, or from which a deleterious component has been removed a food where the nature of one or more components has been modified The idea of functionality'reflects a major shift in attitudes to the relationship between diet and health. Nutritionists have traditionally concentrated on identifying a balanceddiet, that is one ensuring adequate intakes of nutrients and avoiding certain dietary imbalances(for example, excessive consumption of fat, cholesterol and salt)which can contribute towards disease. It is important that this lies behind all sound nutritional principles and guidelines. However, the focus is now on achieving optimised nutrition, maximising life expectancy and quality by identifying food ingredients which, when added to a"balanceddiet
Defining functional foods What are functional foods? The complexities involved in definition are a key theme in Chapter 1 of this book. This suggests the following working definition which seeks to isolate the significance of both ‘functional’ and ‘food’ in our understanding of the term: A food can be regarded as ‘functional’ if it is satisfactorily demonstrated to affect beneficially one or more target functions in the body, beyond adequate nutrition, in a way that improves health and well-being or reduces the risk of disease. This definition suggests that a product must remain a food to be included within the category. On this basis a functional food can be: • a natural food • a food to which a positive component has been added, or from which a deleterious component has been removed • a food where the nature of one or more components has been modified. The idea of ‘functionality’ reflects a major shift in attitudes to the relationship between diet and health. Nutritionists have traditionally concentrated on identifying a ‘balanced’ diet, that is one ensuring adequate intakes of nutrients and avoiding certain dietary imbalances (for example, excessive consumption of fat, cholesterol and salt) which can contribute towards disease. It is important that this lies behind all sound nutritional principles and guidelines. However, the focus is now on achieving ‘optimised’ nutrition, maximising life expectancy and quality by identifying food ingredients which, when added to a ‘balanced’ diet, Introduction