By what Criteria Could You Select a Weighing Instrument? Capacity and Readability Focus on determining your true readability needs. Cost increases significantly with greater readability. Also bear in mind hat a quality balance usually has internal resolutions that are better than the displayed resolution. Stability is a more desired trait in analytical balances due to the small sample size Most high-end lab balances will calibrate themselves or will have some internal weight that the user can activate Most lab applications require straight weighing (or only ). Analytical balances may have an air buoyancy cor application, or determination of filament diameters. Other tions include Checkweighing Sets a target weight or desired weight; th oles to see if they hit the Accumulation Calculates how much of a pre-set formula has been filled by the material being weighed Counting. Calculates the number of samples present based on the reference weight of one sample Factor calculations. Applies a weighed sample into a formula to calculate a final result Percent weighing. A measured sample is represented as a of a pre-set desired amount Printout of sample information and weights Computer Interface Some instruments can share data with a computer How Can You generate the most reliable and Reproducible Measurements? Vessel si Use the smallest container appropriate for the weighing task t reduce surface and buoyancy effects. Sample Conditioning The sample temperature should be in equilibrium with the ambient temperature and that of the balance. This will prevent Troutman et al
By What Criteria Could You Select a Weighing Instrument? Capacity and Readability Focus on determining your true readability needs. Cost increases significantly with greater readability. Also bear in mind that a quality balance usually has internal resolutions that are better than the displayed resolution. Stability is a more desired trait in analytical balances due to the small sample size. Calibration Most high-end lab balances will calibrate themselves or will have some internal weight that the user can activate. Applications Most lab applications require straight weighing (or “weigh only”). Analytical balances may have an air buoyancy correction application, or determination of filament diameters. Other functions include: • Checkweighing. Sets a target weight or desired weight; then weighs samples to see if they hit the target weight. • Accumulation. Calculates how much of a pre-set formula has been filled by the material being weighed. • Counting. Calculates the number of samples present based on the reference weight of one sample. • Factor calculations. Applies a weighed sample into a formula to calculate a final result. • Percent weighing. A measured sample is represented as a percentage of a pre-set desired amount. • Printout of sample information and weights. Computer Interface Some instruments can share data with a computer. How Can You Generate the Most Reliable and Reproducible Measurements? Vessel Size Use the smallest container appropriate for the weighing task to reduce surface and buoyancy effects. Sample Conditioning The sample temperature should be in equilibrium with the ambient temperature and that of the balance. This will prevent 54 Troutman et al
convection currents at the surface. Cold samples will appear heavier, and hot samples will be lighter. Humidity z If there is low humidity in the weighing environment, plast ssels should not be used, mainly for their propensity to gain electrostatic charges. Vessels comprised of 100% glass are pre ferred because they are nonconductive If high resolution is required(I mg or less), the sample should not make contact with the user's skin Traces of sweat add weight and attract moisture(up to 400 micrograms ug). The body will also transfer heat to the sample, creating problems addressed above Sample location The sample should be centered as much as possible on the weighing pan Off-center loading creates torque that cannot be completely counterbalanced by the instrument. This problem is called the off-center load error Hygroscopic samples Weigh these samples in a closed container. How Can You minimize service Calls? Ideally weighing equipment should be calibrated daily, and a certified technician should occasionally clean the balance and the internal calibration weights so that they keep their accuracy. More involved problems can be averted by minimizing the handling of the instruments If instruments must be handled or moved, apply great care a drop of inches can cause thousands of dollars of damage to an analytical balance For moves, use the original shipping packaging, which was specially designed for your particular instrument. Avoid any jarring movements, which can ruin an instruments calibration CENTRIFUGATION ( Kristin A. Prasauckas) Theory and strategy Do All Centrifugation Strategies Purify via One Mechanism? Zonal, or rate-zonal, centrifugation separates particles based on mass, which reflects the particles sedimentation coefficient. The How to Properly Use and Maintain Laboratory Equipment
convection currents at the surface. Cold samples will appear heavier, and hot samples will be lighter. Humidity If there is low humidity in the weighing environment, plastic vessels should not be used, mainly for their propensity to gain electrostatic charges. Vessels comprised of 100% glass are preferred because they are nonconductive. Sample Handling If high resolution is required (1mg or less), the sample should not make contact with the user’s skin. Traces of sweat add weight and attract moisture (up to 400 micrograms [mg]). The body will also transfer heat to the sample, creating problems addressed above. Sample Location The sample should be centered as much as possible on the weighing pan. Off-center loading creates torque that cannot be completely counterbalanced by the instrument. This problem is called the off-center load error. Hygroscopic Samples Weigh these samples in a closed container. How Can You Minimize Service Calls? Ideally weighing equipment should be calibrated daily, and a certified technician should occasionally clean the balance and the internal calibration weights so that they keep their accuracy. More involved problems can be averted by minimizing the handling of the instruments. If instruments must be handled or moved, apply great care. A drop of inches can cause thousands of dollars of damage to an analytical balance. For moves, use the original shipping packaging, which was specially designed for your particular instrument.Avoid any jarring movements, which can ruin an instrument’s calibration. CENTRIFUGATION (Kristin A. Prasauckas) Theory and Strategy Do All Centrifugation Strategies Purify via One Mechanism? Zonal, or rate-zonal, centrifugation separates particles based on mass, which reflects the particle’s sedimentation coefficient.The How to Properly Use and Maintain Laboratory Equipment 55
greater the migration distance of the sample, the better is the resolution of separation. The average size of synthetic nucleic acid polymers are frequently determined by zonal centrifugation Isopycnic or equilibrium density centrifugation separates based on particle density, not size. Particles migrate to a location where he density of the particle matches the density of the centrifuga tion medium Purification of plasmid DNA on cesium chloride is an example of isopycnic centrifugation Voet and Voet(1995)and Rickwood (1984)discuss the techniques and applications of isop- cnic separations. Pelleting exploits differences in solubility, size, or density in order to concentrate material at the bottom of a centrifuge tube (Figure 4.1). The rotors recommended for these procedures are described in Table 41 etie(a) DENSIT GRADIENT a83 Figure 4.I Types of density gradient centrifugation.(a) Rate-zonal centrifugation. The mple is loaded onto the top of a preformed density gradient (leff), and centrifugation results in a series of zones of particles sedimenting at different rates depending upon the particle sizes (right).(b) Isopycnic centrifugation using a preformed density gradient. The sample is loaded on top of the gradient (lefr), and each sample particle sediments until it reaches a density in the gradient equal to its own density (right). Therefore the final posi- tion of each type of particle in the gradient(the isopycnic position) is determined by the particle density.(c) Isopycnic centrifugation using a self-forming gradient. The sampl mixed with the gradient medium to give a mixture of uniform density (left). During sub- sequent centrifugation, the gradient medium re-distributes to form a density gradient and the sample particles then band at their isopycnic positions(right). From Centifugation: A Practical Approach(2nd Ed. ) 1984 Rickwood, D, ed. Reprinted by permission niversity Press. Troutman et al
56 Troutman et al. greater the migration distance of the sample, the better is the resolution of separation.The average size of synthetic nucleic acid polymers are frequently determined by zonal centrifugation. Isopycnic or equilibrium density centrifugation separates based on particle density, not size. Particles migrate to a location where the density of the particle matches the density of the centrifugation medium. Purification of plasmid DNA on cesium chloride is an example of isopycnic centrifugation. Voet and Voet (1995) and Rickwood (1984) discuss the techniques and applications of isopycnic separations. Pelleting exploits differences in solubility, size, or density in order to concentrate material at the bottom of a centrifuge tube (Figure 4.1). The rotors recommended for these procedures are described in Table 4.1. Figure 4.1 Types of density gradient centrifugation. (a) Rate-zonal centrifugation. The sample is loaded onto the top of a preformed density gradient (left), and centrifugation results in a series of zones of particles sedimenting at different rates depending upon the particle sizes (right). (b) Isopycnic centrifugation using a preformed density gradient. The sample is loaded on top of the gradient (left), and each sample particle sediments until it reaches a density in the gradient equal to its own density (right). Therefore the final position of each type of particle in the gradient (the isopycnic position) is determined by the particle density. (c) Isopycnic centrifugation using a self-forming gradient. The sample is mixed with the gradient medium to give a mixture of uniform density (left). During subsequent centrifugation, the gradient medium re-distributes to form a density gradient and the sample particles then band at their isopycnic positions (right). From Centifugation: A Practical Approach (2nd Ed.). 1984. Rickwood, D., ed. Reprinted by permission of Oxford University Press
What Are the Strategies for Selecting a Purification Strategy? Procedures for nucleic acid purification are abundant and reproducible(Ausubel et al., 1998). Methods to isolate cells and subcellular components are provided in the research literature nd by manufacturers of centrifugation media. But frequently they require optimization, especially when the origin of your sample differs from that cited in your protocol. If you cant locate a protocol in the research literature and texts, contact manufacturers of centrifugation media. If a refer- ence isnt found for your exact sample, consider a protocol for a related sample. If all else fails, search for the published density of your sample. Manufacturers of centrifuge equipment and media can provide guidance in the construction of gradients based on your sample's density Rickwood(1984) also provides excellent instructions on gradient construction Which Centrifuge Is Most Appropriate for Your Work? Your purification strategy will dictate the choice of centrifuge, but these general guidelines provide a starting point. An example is provided in Table 4.2 Rotor Application Guide Type Swinging-Bucket Fixed-Ans Pelleting Good Not recommended Be Good Table 4.2 Centrifuge Applic Low Speed Application High Speed Ultra o (100.0001 for Pelleting 7000×g) 100,000×g)1,000.000×g) Cells Feasible but not Nuclei Ye Feasible but not Some Yes Ribosomes YYes Macromolecules YYes Source: Data from Rickwood (1984). How to Properly Use and Maintain Laboratory Equipment
How to Properly Use and Maintain Laboratory Equipment 57 What Are the Strategies for Selecting a Purification Strategy? Procedures for nucleic acid purification are abundant and reproducible (Ausubel et al., 1998). Methods to isolate cells and subcellular components are provided in the research literature and by manufacturers of centrifugation media. But frequently they require optimization, especially when the origin of your sample differs from that cited in your protocol. If you can’t locate a protocol in the research literature and texts, contact manufacturers of centrifugation media. If a reference isn’t found for your exact sample, consider a protocol for a related sample. If all else fails, search for the published density of your sample. Manufacturers of centrifuge equipment and media can provide guidance in the construction of gradients based on your sample’s density. Rickwood (1984) also provides excellent instructions on gradient construction. Which Centrifuge Is Most Appropriate for Your Work? Your purification strategy will dictate the choice of centrifuge, but these general guidelines provide a starting point. An example is provided in Table 4.2. Table 4.2 Centrifuge Application Guide Low Speed High Speed Ultra Application (7000 rpm/ (30,000rpm/ (100,000rpm/ for Pelleting 7000 ¥ g) 100,000 ¥ g) 1,000,000 ¥ g) Cells Yes Yes Feasible, but not recommended Nuclei Yes Yes Feasible, but not recommended Membranous Some Yes Yes organelles Membrane Some Some Yes fractions Ribosomes No No Yes Macromolecules No No Yes Source: Data from Rickwood (1984). Table 4.1 Rotor Application Guide Rotor Type Swinging-Bucket Fixed-Angle Vertical Pelleting Good Best Not recommended Rate-zonal Best Not recommended Good Isopycnic Good Better Best
Practice Can You Use Your Existing Rotor Inventory? Most rotors are compatible only with centrifuges produced by the same manufacturer. Confirm rotor compatibility with the manufacturer of your centrifuge. What Are Your Options If You Don't Have Access to the same Rotor Cited in a procedure? Ideally you should use a rotor with the angle and radius iden tical to that cited in your protocol. If you must work with alter native equipment, consider the g force effect of the rotor format when adapting your centrifugation strategy. The g force is a uni- versal unit of measure, so selecting a rotor based on a similar g force, or RCF, will yield more reproducible results than selecting a rotor based on rpm characteristics. Conversion between RCF and rpm g force=11. 18xR(rpm/1000 Rotor format Protocols designed for a swinging-bucket rotor cannot be easily onverted for use in a fixed-angle rotor The converse is also true Rotor Angle The shallower the rotor angle( the closer to vertical), the shorter the distance traveled by the sample, and the faster centrifugation proceeds. This parameter also alters the shape of a gradient gen- erated during centrifugation, and the location of pelleted materi als. The closer the rotor is to horizontal, the closer the pellet will form to the bottom of the tube(Figure 4.2 ). Radius The radius exerts several influences on fixed-angle and hori- zontal rotors. The g force is calculated as follows, and holds true for standard and microcentrifuges: g force=112×103× rxrpm r=radius in cm Centrifugation force can be described as a maximum(g-max) a miminum(g-min), or an average g force(g-average) If no suffix is given, the convention is to assume that the procedure refers to g-max. These various g forces are defined for each rotor by the manufacturer Troutman et al
Practice Can You Use Your Existing Rotor Inventory? Most rotors are compatible only with centrifuges produced by the same manufacturer. Confirm rotor compatibility with the manufacturer of your centrifuge. What Are Your Options If You Don’t Have Access to the Same Rotor Cited in a Procedure? Ideally you should use a rotor with the angle and radius identical to that cited in your protocol. If you must work with alternative equipment, consider the g force effect of the rotor format when adapting your centrifugation strategy. The g force is a universal unit of measure, so selecting a rotor based on a similar g force, or RCF, will yield more reproducible results than selecting a rotor based on rpm characteristics. Conversion between RCF and rpm Rotor Format Protocols designed for a swinging-bucket rotor cannot be easily converted for use in a fixed-angle rotor. The converse is also true. Rotor Angle The shallower the rotor angle (the closer to vertical), the shorter the distance traveled by the sample, and the faster centrifugation proceeds. This parameter also alters the shape of a gradient generated during centrifugation, and the location of pelleted materials. The closer the rotor is to horizontal, the closer the pellet will form to the bottom of the tube (Figure 4.2). Radius The radius exerts several influences on fixed-angle and horizontal rotors. The g force is calculated as follows, and holds true for standard and microcentrifuges: g force = 1.12 ¥ 10-5 ¥ r ¥ rpm r = radius in cm Centrifugation force can be described as a maximum (g-max), a miminum (g-min), or an average g force (g-average). If no suffix is given, the convention is to assume that the procedure refers to g-max. These various g forces are defined for each rotor by the manufacturer. g R force = ¥ 11 18 1000 ( ) 2 . rpm 58 Troutman et al