《英语教学》（英文版）Working Safely with Radioactive Materials

Molecular Biology Problem Solver: A Laboratory Guide. Edited by Alan S Gerstein opyright◎2001 ISBNS:0-471-37972-7( Paper);0-47 (Electronic) 6 Working Safely with Radioactive materials William R.. Volny r. Licensing and Certification 143 Do You need a license to handle radioactive Materials? 143 Who Do You Contact to Begin the Process of Becoming Licensed or Certified to Use Radioactivity? Selecting and Ordering a Radioisotope 144 Which Radiochemical Is Most Appropriate for Your Research 144 What Quantity of Radioactivity Should You Purchase? When Should You order the material? How Do You Calculate the Amount of Remaining How Long after the Reference Date Can You Use Your material? 149 Can You Compensate by Adding More Radiochemical If the Reference Date Has Long Passed? Handling Radioactive Shipments What Should You Do with the Radioactive Shipment A Wipe Test Detected Radioactivity on the Outside When lt arrives? 50 of the vial. Does this indicate a problem? 5 14l

141 6 Working Safely with Radioactive Materials William R. J. Volny Jr. Licensing and Certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Do You Need a License to Handle Radioactive Materials? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Who Do You Contact to Begin the Process of Becoming Licensed or Certified to Use Radioactivity? . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Selecting and Ordering a Radioisotope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 Which Radiochemical Is Most Appropriate for Your Research? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 What Quantity of Radioactivity Should You Purchase? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 When Should You Order the Material? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 How Do You Calculate the Amount of Remaining Radiolabel? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 How Long after the Reference Date Can You Use Your Material? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Can You Compensate by Adding More Radiochemical If the Reference Date Has Long Passed? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Handling Radioactive Shipments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 What Should You Do with the Radioactive Shipment When It Arrives? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 A Wipe Test Detected Radioactivity on the Outside of the Vial. Does This Indicate a Problem? . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Molecular Biology Problem Solver: A Laboratory Guide. Edited by Alan S. Gerstein Copyright © 2001 by Wiley-Liss, Inc. ISBNs: 0-471-37972-7 (Paper); 0-471-22390-5 (Electronic)

Your count -Rate meter detects radiation on the Outside of a Box Containing I mCi of aP Labeled dATP Is It Contaminated? 52 You Received 250 u Ci of P and the Box Wasn't Labeled Radioactive. Isnt This a Dangerous Mistake? esigning Your Experiments 53 How Do You Determine the Molarity and Mass in the vial of material? 53 How Do You Quantitate the Amount of Radioactivity for Your reaction? 155 Storing Radioactive Materials 56 What Causes the Degradation of a Radiochemical? 156 What Can You do to maximize the lifetime and Potency of a radiochemical? 156 What Is the Stability of a Radiolabeled Protein or Nucleic Acid 57 Radioactive Waste: What Are Your Options and obligatio Handling Radioactivity: Achieving Minimum Dose 159 How Is Radioactive Exposure Quantified and What Are the allowable doses? 59 Monitoring Technology: What's the Difference between a Count -Rate Counter and a dose-Rate Meter? 59 What Are the Elements of a Good Overall Monitoring 161 Strategy What Can You do to achieve minimum radioactive Dose? 162 How Can You Organize Your Work Area to Minimize Your Exposure to Radioactivity? How Can You concentrate a radioactive solution? Bibliography 166 Appendix A: Physical Properties of Common Radionuclides The information within this chapter is designed as a supple. ment, not a replacement, to the training provided by your institu tional rules and/or radiation safety officer. At the very least, there are some 10 fundamental rules to consider when working with radioactivity(Amerhsam International, 1974) 1. Understand the nature of the hazard and get practical ahead to minimize time spent handling radioactivity

Your Count-Rate Meter Detects Radiation on the Outside of a Box Containing 1mCi of a 32P Labeled dATP. Is It Contaminated? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 You Received 250mCi of 32P and the Box Wasn’t Labeled Radioactive. Isn’t This a Dangerous Mistake? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Designing Your Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 How Do You Determine the Molarity and Mass in the Vial of Material? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 How Do You Quantitate the Amount of Radioactivity for Your Reaction? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Storing Radioactive Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 What Causes the Degradation of a Radiochemical? . . . . . . 156 What Can You Do to Maximize the Lifetime and Potency of a Radiochemical? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 What Is the Stability of a Radiolabeled Protein or Nucleic Acid? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Radioactive Waste: What Are Your Options and Obligations? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Handling Radioactivity: Achieving Minimum Dose . . . . . . . . . . 159 How Is Radioactive Exposure Quantified and What Are the Allowable Doses? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Monitoring Technology: What’s the Difference between a Count-Rate Counter and a Dose-Rate Meter? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 What Are the Elements of a Good Overall Monitoring Strategy? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 What Can You Do to Achieve Minimum Radioactive Dose? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 How Can You Organize Your Work Area to Minimize Your Exposure to Radioactivity? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 How Can You Concentrate a Radioactive Solution? . . . . . . 164 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 Appendix A: Physical Properties of Common Radionuclides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 The information within this chapter is designed as a supple￾ment, not a replacement, to the training provided by your institu￾tional rules and/or radiation safety officer. At the very least, there are some 10 fundamental rules to consider when working with radioactivity (Amerhsam International, 1974): 1. Understand the nature of the hazard, and get practical training. 2. Plan ahead to minimize time spent handling radioactivity. 142 Volny Jr

3. Distance yourself appropriately from sources of radiation 4. Use appropriate shielding for the radiation. 5. Contain radioactive materials in defined work areas. 6. Wear appropriate protective clothing and dosimeters. 7. Monitor the work area frequently for contamination ontrol 8. Follow the local rules and safe ways of working 9. Minimize accumulation of waste and dispose of it by appropriate routes. 10. After completion of work, monitor yourself; then wash and monitor again LICENSING AND CERTIFICATION Do You need a license to handle radioactive materials? Q Whichever type of license is granted by the Nuclear Regulatory ommission (NRC), it tends to be a single license issued to the institution itself, to regulate its entire radioisotope usage. Separate licenses are not normally granted to the various departments or to individuals at that institution. However, everyone who works with radioactive materials at a licensed institution must be trained nd approved to use the radioactive materials. Keep in mind that some states may have control over radioactive materials not con- trolled by the NrC. In addition, in"agreement states, the NRc requirements are regulated and controlled by a state agency Universities, governmental institutions, or industry are usually licensed to use radionuclides under a Type A License of Broad Scope (U.s. Nuclear Regulatory Commission Regulatory Guide 1980). This is the most comprehensive license available to an insti tution. It requires that the institution have a radiation safety com ted radiation safety officer(Rso), and detailed radiation protection and training procedures. Researchers who want to use radionuclides in their work must present the proposal to the radiation safety committee and have it approved before being able to carry out the experiments. There are other types of licenses issued by nRC or by agree ment states. For example, these may be specific by-product material licenses of limited scope, specific licenses of broad scope licenses for source or special nuclear materials, or licenses for kilocurie irradiation sources (U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commis sion Regulatory Guide, 1979, 1976). By-product materials are the radionuclides that form during reactor processes. The most commonly used radionuclides, P, P, S, H,C, and I are all -product materials. The licensing of by-product material is Working Safely with Radioactive Materials 143

3. Distance yourself appropriately from sources of radiation. 4. Use appropriate shielding for the radiation. 5. Contain radioactive materials in defined work areas. 6. Wear appropriate protective clothing and dosimeters. 7. Monitor the work area frequently for contamination control. 8. Follow the local rules and safe ways of working. 9. Minimize accumulation of waste and dispose of it by appropriate routes. 10. After completion of work, monitor yourself; then wash and monitor again. LICENSING AND CERTIFICATION Do You Need a License to Handle Radioactive Materials? Whichever type of license is granted by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), it tends to be a single license issued to the institution itself, to regulate its entire radioisotope usage. Separate licenses are not normally granted to the various departments or to individuals at that institution. However, everyone who works with radioactive materials at a licensed institution must be trained and approved to use the radioactive materials. Keep in mind that some states may have control over radioactive materials not con￾trolled by the NRC. In addition, in “agreement states,” the NRC requirements are regulated and controlled by a state agency. Universities, governmental institutions, or industry are usually licensed to use radionuclides under a Type A License of Broad Scope (U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission Regulatory Guide, 1980).This is the most comprehensive license available to an insti￾tution. It requires that the institution have a radiation safety com￾mittee, an appointed radiation safety officer (RSO), and detailed radiation protection and training procedures. Researchers who want to use radionuclides in their work must present the proposal to the radiation safety committee and have it approved before being able to carry out the experiments. There are other types of licenses issued by NRC or by agree￾ment states. For example, these may be specific by-product material licenses of limited scope, specific licenses of broad scope, licenses for source or special nuclear materials, or licenses for kilocurie irradiation sources (U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commis￾sion Regulatory Guide, 1979, 1976). By-product materials are the radionuclides that form during reactor processes. The most commonly used radionuclides, 32P, 33P, 35S, 3 H, 14C, and 125I are all by-product materials. The licensing of by-product material is Working Safely with Radioactive Materials 143

covered in detail under Title 10, Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), Part 30, Rules of General Applicability to Licensing of Byproduct Material (10CFR Part 30), and 10CFR Part 33, Spe- cific Domestic Licenses of Broad Scope for Byproduct Material (10CFR Part 33) For more information, a recent publication by the NRC is now available entitled: Consolidated guidance about materials Licenses. Program-Specific Guidance about Academic Research and Development, and other Licenses of Limited Scope. Final Report U.S. Regulatory Commission, Office of Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards. NOREG-1556, Vol 7. M. L. Fuller, R.P. Hayes, A S Lodhi, G. W. Purdy, December 1999. You can also find informationontheNrcWebsitewww.Nrc.gov.TheAtomic Energy Control Board, or AECB, governs radioactive use in CanadaTheirWebsiteiswww.aecb-ccea.gc.ca Who Do You Contact to Begin the Process of Becoming Licensed or Certified to Use Radioactivity? If you want to use radioactivity in your research, you may need o become an authorized user at your institution. First, decide what type of isotope or isotopes will be used in your research, the application, how much material you will need, disposal methods, and for how long you will use it. Then, present this information to your radiation safety officer or radiation safety committee so that hey can determine whether such radionuclide use is possible under your institution's license. If the request is approved, carry out the requirements stated on your institution's license to become an authorized user operating in an approved laboratory SELECTING AND ORDERING A RADIOISOTOPE Which Radiochemical Is Most Appropriate for Your research? The Institution's Perspective Your institution's license defines specific limits to the type and amount of radionuclide allowable on site(this includes on-site aste). Before determining how much material you think you'll need, find out how much you' ll be allowed to have in your lab at any one time. You can then get an idea about how or if you'll need to space out the work requiring radioactivity Your perspective These are some of the most important parameters to consider when deciding which isotope to use

covered in detail under Title 10, Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), Part 30, Rules of General Applicability to Licensing of Byproduct Material (10CFR Part 30), and 10CFR Part 33, Spe￾cific Domestic Licenses of Broad Scope for Byproduct Material (10CFR Part 33). For more information, a recent publication by the NRC is now available entitled: Consolidated Guidance about Materials Licenses. Program-Specific Guidance about Academic Research and Development, and other Licenses of Limited Scope. Final Report U.S. Regulatory Commission, Office of Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards. NOREG-1556, Vol. 7. M. L. Fuller, R. P. Hayes, A. S. Lodhi, G. W. Purdy, December 1999. You can also find information on the NRC Web site www.NRC.gov. The Atomic Energy Control Board, or AECB, governs radioactive use in Canada. Their Web site is www.aecb-ccea.gc.ca. Who Do You Contact to Begin the Process of Becoming Licensed or Certified to Use Radioactivity? If you want to use radioactivity in your research, you may need to become an authorized user at your institution. First, decide what type of isotope or isotopes will be used in your research, the application, how much material you will need, disposal methods, and for how long you will use it. Then, present this information to your radiation safety officer or radiation safety committee so that they can determine whether such radionuclide use is possible under your institution’s license. If the request is approved, carry out the requirements stated on your institution’s license to become an authorized user operating in an approved laboratory. SELECTING AND ORDERING A RADIOISOTOPE Which Radiochemical Is Most Appropriate for Your Research? The Institution’s Perspective Your institution’s license defines specific limits to the type and amount of radionuclide allowable on site (this includes on-site waste). Before determining how much material you think you’ll need, find out how much you’ll be allowed to have in your lab at any one time.You can then get an idea about how or if you’ll need to space out the work requiring radioactivity. Your Perspective These are some of the most important parameters to consider when deciding which isotope to use. 144 Volny Jr

●o● specific activity diluted o molecules of compound of compound Figure 6.1 Diagrammatical representation of radiochemicals at low and high specific ctivity, and at high specific activity in a diluent. From Guide to the Self-decomposition of Radiochemicals, Amersham International, plc, 1992, Buckinghamshire, U.K. Reprinted by permission of Amersham Pharmacia Biotech Radionuclide, Energy, and Type of Emission(Alpha, Beta, Gamma, X ray, etc In most cases you won't have the choice. You will choose the adionuclide because of its elemental properties, and its reactivity in reference to the experiment, not its type of emission. Each radionuclide has its unique emission spectrum. The spectra are important in determining how you detect the radioactivity in your samples. This is discussed more fully later in the chapter. Specific Activity and Radioactive Concentration The highest specific activity and the highest radioactive con centration tend to be the best since it means that there will be the greatest number of radioactive molecules in a given mass and volume(Figure 6.1). But there are two caveats to this ideal. The first is that as you increase the specific activity, you decrease the molar concentration of your desired molecule. This molecule will become the limiting reagent and possibly slow down or halt the reaction. The second danger is that at high specific activities and/or radioactive concentrations, the rate of radiolytic decomposition will increase. These parameters are discussed in more detail in Chapter 14, Nucleic Acid Hybridization o take an example, a standard random priming labeling reaction requires 50 uCi (1.85 MBq)* of P dNTP(Feinberg *In the United States the unit of activity of"Curie"is still used The unit of common usage is the Becquerel(Bq). Whereas I Curie=3. 7 x 10 disintegrations per second(dps), the Bq=1 dps. For example, to convert picocuries(10 Curies)to Working Safely with Radioactive Materials 145

Radionuclide, Energy, and Type of Emission (Alpha, Beta, Gamma, X ray, etc.) In most cases you won’t have the choice. You will choose the radionuclide because of its elemental properties, and its reactivity in reference to the experiment, not its type of emission. Each radionuclide has its unique emission spectrum. The spectra are important in determining how you detect the radioactivity in your samples. This is discussed more fully later in the chapter. Specific Activity and Radioactive Concentration The highest specific activity and the highest radioactive con￾centration tend to be the best since it means that there will be the greatest number of radioactive molecules in a given mass and volume (Figure 6.1). But there are two caveats to this ideal. The first is that as you increase the specific activity, you decrease the molar concentration of your desired molecule. This molecule will become the limiting reagent and possibly slow down or halt the reaction.The second danger is that at high specific activities and/or radioactive concentrations, the rate of radiolytic decomposition will increase. These parameters are discussed in more detail in Chapter 14, “Nucleic Acid Hybridization.” To take an example, a standard random priming labeling reaction requires 50mCi (1.85MBq)* of 32P dNTP (Feinberg Working Safely with Radioactive Materials 145 Figure 6.1 Diagrammatical representation of radiochemicals at low and high specific activity, and at high specific activity in a diluent. From Guide to the Self-decomposition of Radiochemicals, Amersham International, plc, 1992, Buckinghamshire, U.K. Reprinted by permission of Amersham Pharmacia Biotech. *In the United States the unit of activity of “Curie” is still used. The unit of common usage is the Becquerel (Bq). Whereas 1 Curie = 3.7 ¥ 1010 disintegrations per second (dps), the Bq = 1 dps. For example, to convert picocuries (10-12 Curies) to