Cereal Crops Economics, Statistics and Uses the period 1960-1989 are shown diagrammatically Cereals are the fruits of cultivated grasses members of the monocotyledonous family Production barley, oats, rye, rice, maize, sorghum and t6 s, Gramineae. The principal cereal crops are wheat The world production of wheat millets rye, rice (paddy), maize, sorghum and millet Cereals have been important crops for thou- was estimated at 1233 million tonnes(Mt) in sands of years; indeed, the successful production, 1969-1971, rising to 1652 Mt in 1981, and to storage and use of cereals has contributed in no 1784 Mt in 1987-1989.* small measure to the development of modern The total world production of the eight major civilization cereals in 1987-1989 would have been sufficient to provide approximately 350 kg of cereal grain World crops per head per annum, or about 960 g per head per day, if the entire world Area estimated for 1981, which was 370 kg of cereal The area occupied by the eight cereals averaged grain per head per annum, indicating that the 665 million ha over the 3-year period of increase in total world production is not quite 1969-1971, and increased to 719 M ha on average keeping pace with the increase in world population in the period 1979-1981. There was a slight fall, The average human consumption of cereals is to an average of 691 M ha, in the period only about one half of these figures, as a variable 1987-1989. Between 1965 and 1989 the area proportion is used for other purposes, mainly under wheat, barley, maize, rice and sorghum animal feed, industrial processing, and seed, and has shown a small increase, whereas the area there is considerable wastage. Thus, in 1984-1986, under oats, rye and millet has decreased slightly of a world total domestic supply of 1677 Mt of all The total area occupied by cereals in 1987-1989 cereals, 49% was used for human food, giving an was 5.3% of the entire land surface of the world. average consumption of 171 kg per head per e annual world area and production and the annum, 37% was used for animal feed, 10% for average world yield of the individual cereals over processing and other uses, and 4% for seed op data for earlier years have been derived from Grain Crops and grain B by permission of the Commonwealth tariat;those for later form F.A.o. Production Year Books and F.A. 0 Year books or f.a.o. food balance and from h-GCa Cereal statistics
I Cereal Crops: Economics, Statistics and Uses Cereals Cereals are the fruits of cultivated grasses, members of the monocotyledonous family Gramineae. The principal cereal crops are wheat, barley, oats, rye, rice, maize, sorghum and the millets. Cereals have been important crops for thousands of years; indeed, the successful production, storage and use of cereals has contributed in no small measure to the development of modern civilization. the period 1960-1989 are shown diagrammatically in Fig. 1.1. Production The world production of wheat, barley, oats, rye, rice (paddy), maize, sorghum and millet was estimated at 1233 million tonnes (Mt) in 1969-1971, rising to 1652 Mt in 1981, and to 1784 Mt in 1987-1989.* The total world production of the eight major cereals in 1987-1989 would have been sufficient to provide approximately 350 kg of cereal grain per head per annum, or about 960 g per head per day, if shared equally among the entire world population. This is a slight reduction on the figure estimated for 1981, which was 370 kg of cereal Area The area occupied by the eight cereals averaged grain per head per annum, indicating that the 665 million ha over the 3-year period of increase in total world production is not quite 1969-1971, and increased to 719 M ha on average keeping pace with the increase in world population. in the period 1979-1981. There was a slight fall, The average human consumption of cereals is to an average of 691 M ha, in the period only about one half of these figures, as a variable 1987-1989. Between 1965 and 1989 the area proportion is used for other purposes, mainly under wheat, barley, maize, rice and sorghum animal feed, industrial processing, and seed, and has shown a small increase, whereas the area there is considerable wastage. Thus, in 1984-1986, under oats, rye and millet has decreased slightly. of a world total domestic supply of 1677 Mt of all The total area occupied by cereals in 1987-1989 cereals, 49% was used for human food, giving an was 5.3% of the entire land surface of the world. average consumption of 171 kg per head per The annual world area and production and the annum, 37% was used for animal feed, 10% for average world yield of the individual cereals over processing and other uses, and 4% for seed. World crops * Crop data for earlier years have been derived from Grain Crops and Grain Bulletin by permission of the Commonwealth Secretariat; those for later years form F.A.O. Production Year Books and F.A.O. Trade Year Books or F.A.O. Food Balance Sheets, and from H-GCA Cereal Statistics. 1
TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS Rice, poddy 9+8三 Yield Millet Harvest year Clio ommon teath sel tarna a n Ddu vix n uroS tAld yield, f prin cereals since 1960.(S
250 200 yl 2 01 C c { 150- G? 5 loo- 5 2 - - c Area Wheat ! /-e-- Rice Maize paddy 30 25 m E 2 Y \ .c s o I5 z c; 5 Maize Rice, paddy - Yield - 0 -’ /-e-’ -Wheat Barley // 20-i:::s 35-/ Sorghum - 4 lo-x.fl. - fi Ml11et 0‘ I I I I I I
CEREAL CROPS: ECONOMICS, STATISTICS AND USES yield t/ha), corn meal (2.04 t/ha) and white wheat four The proportion of the total harvested the eight cereals is similar content in k]/g(15.7 for milled rice, 16.61 area 1.72 t/ha by the respective figures for energy contributed by each of for corn to,or greater than, the proportion of the total meal, 16. I for white wheat flour). As regards food production, except for maize and rice(see Table protein yield, rice, producing 0.18 t/ha of protein 1. 1). This is because the yields of wheat, barley, (in milled rice), is second only to wheat, produc oats, rye and sorghum do not vary greatly among ng 0 19 t/ha(in white flour), followed by oats, abour, s(and that for millet is very low), producing 0.15 t/ha(in oatmeal) whereas times the average yield of all the other reals (apart from millet. Taking all the cereals Wheat together, the average yield for the whole world progressively from 18. 1 q/ Cultivation 1969-1971to22.5q/hain1981, and to258 g/ha in 1987-1989. Between 1969 and 1989, the Wheat is grown throughe world, from yield of maize increased by 11. 8 q/ha(from 24.7 e borders of the arctic to near the equator, to 36.5 q/ha), largely through the use of hybrid although the crop is most successful between the maize(cf. p. 99), and that of rice(padd latitudes of30°and60° North and27°and40° increased by 12. 1 q/ha(from 22.6 q/ha in 1969 South. In altitude, it ranges from sea level to 34.7 q/ha in 1989), whereas that of all other 3050 m in Kenya and 4572 m in Tibet. It adaptable to a range of environmental conditions cereals together increased by only 3.9 q/ha on from xerophytic to littoral distribution of the world cereals area and produc Wheat grows best on heavy loam and clay tion and the world average yields for each cereal although it makes a satisfactory crop on light over the period 1987-1989 are shown in Table 1.1 land. The crop repays heavy nitrogenous manuring. TABLE Wheat flourishes in subtropical, warm tempe World Cereal Area, Production and yield for the Period rate and cool temperate climat 1987-1989★ rainfall of 229-762 mm, falling more in spring of total temperature should be 13C (56F)or more. production (q/hat) The seed is sown in late autumn( winter wheat) Wheat 32 23.3 or in spring(spring wheat). Winter wheat can be Barley rown in places, e.g. northwestern Europe, where excessive freezing of the soil does not Rice(paddy) 33. 8 occur. The grain germinates in the autumn and Maize grows slowly until the spring Frost would affect Millet 14.0 the young plants adversely, but a covering of snow protects them and promotes tillering. In ★ ed from F. A.O. Production Year Book(1990). countries such as the Canadian prairies and the t N.B. 1 qha 0.79 cwt/ac. steppes of russia that experience winters too severe for winter sowing, wheat is sown as early s sources of carbohydrate related to land use, as possible in the spring, so that the crop may be rice, producing 38. 1 x 106 kJ/ha, ranks first harvested before the first frosts of autumn. The among cereal grains, followed by maize with 33. 9 area of production of spring wheat is being x 10 k]/ha and wheat with 27.7 x 10 k]/ha. extended progressively northwards in the northern These figures are obtained by multiplying the hemisphere by the use of new varieties bred for 1989 average world yield of milled rice(2.43 their quick -ripening characteristics
CEREAL CROPS: ECONOMICS, STATISTICS AND USES 3 t/ha), corn meal (2.04 t/ha) and white wheat flour (1.72 t/ha) by the respective figures for energy content in kJ/g (15.7 for milled rice, 16.6 for corn meal, 16.1 for white wheat flour). As regards food protein yield, rice, producing 0.18 t/ha of protein (in milled rice), is second only to wheat, producing 0.19 t/ha (in white flour), followed by oats, producing 0.15 t/ha (in oatmeal). Yield The proportion of the total harvested area contributed by each of the eight cereals is similar to, or greater than, the proportion of the total production, except for maize and rice (see Table 1.1). This is because the yields of wheat, barley, oats, rye and sorghum do not vary greatly among themselves (and that for millet is very low), whereas the yields of maize and paddy rice are about 1.7 times the average yield of all the other cereals (apart from millet). Taking all the cereals together, the average yield for the whole world increased progressively from 18.1 q/ha in Cultivation 1969-1971 to 22.5 q/ha in 1981, and to 25.8 yield of maize increased by 11.8 q/ha (from 24.7 maize (cf. p. 99), and that of rice (paddy) increased by 12.1 q/ha (from 22.6 q/ha in 1969 to 34'7 q/ha in 1989)y whereas that Of a11 Other cereals together increased by only 3.9 q/ha on average (from 13.8 to 17.7 q/ha). The percentage distribution of the world cereals area and production and the world average yields for each cereal over the period 1987-1989 are shown in Table 1.1 TABLE 1.1 World Cereal Area, Production and Yield for the Period 1987-1989* Wheat Wheat is grown throughc ! world, from although the crop is most successful between the South. In altitude, it ranges from sea level to 3050 m in Kenya and 4572 m in Tibet. It is adaptable to a range of environmental conditions from xerophytic to littoral. Wheat grows best on heavy loam and clay, although it makes a satisfactory crop on lighter land. The crop repays heavy nitrogenous manuring. Wheat flourishes in subtropical, warm temperate and c001 temperate c1imates* An annua1 rainfall of 229-762 mm, falling more in spring than in summer, suits it best. The mean summer Cereal area production (q/hat) The seed is sown in late autumn (winter wheat) 29 Wheat or in spring (spring wheat). Winter wheat can be 32 Barley 11 10 22.6 grown in places, e.g. northwestern Europe, Oats 3 2 17.8 where excessive freezing of the soil does not occur. The grain germinates in the autumn and Rye 2 2 Rice (paddy) 21 27 Maize 19 25 34.5 grows slowly until the spring. Frost would affect Sorghum 7 3 14.0 the young plants adversely, but a covering of snow protects them and promotes tillering. In Millet 5 2 countries such as the Canadian prairies and the steppes of Russia that experience winters too severe for winter sowing, wheat is sown as early as possible in the spring, so that the crop may be harvested before the first frosts of autumn. The area of production of spring wheat is being extended progressively northwards in the northern hemisphere by the use of new varieties bred for their quick-ripening characteristics. dha in 1987-1989* Between 1969 and 1989Y the the borders of the arctic to near the equator, to 36*5 q/ha)Y largely through the use Of hybrid latitudes of 300 and 600 North and 270 and 400 Percentage Percentage Average of total of total yield temperature should be 13°C (56°F) or more. 23.3 :!:: 7.8 * Data derived from F.A.O. Production Year Book (1990). t N.B. 1 q/ha = 0.79 cwt/ac. As sources of carbohydrate related to land use, rice, producing 38.1 x lo6 kJ/ha, ranks first among cereal grains, followed by maize with 33.9 x lo6 kJ/ha and wheat with 27.7 x lo6 kJ/ha. These figures are obtained by multiplying the 1989 average world yield of milled rice (2.43
TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS Imes of sowing and harvesting of the wheat in Ireland an average yield of /y/ q/ha was ally dependent upon local climatic conditions; of 42-75 g/ha were general in other northwestern wheat is being harvested in some country in every European countries in the same year. However, month of the year. However, the storage facilities in more primitive agricultural communities in most wheat-growing countries are adequate to and in countries with less favourable climatic permit the best part of a years harvest being conditions, yields are still around 12 q/ha. The stored; thus, the British miller can buy wheat improvements in wheat yields since 1956/61 are from any exporting country at almost any time particularly striking in Europe(both Western and of the year. The times of harvest for the principal Eastern), China, and India/Pakistan(see Fig. 1. 2) wheat-growing countries are shown in Table 1. 2 Wheat yield also depends upon the type of heat sown: winter wheat(autumn-sown), with TABLE 1.2 a longer growing period than spring wheat Times of Wheat Harvest normally produces a higher yield than spring Country Harvest time 79). The yield of durum India wheat(cf. p. 79), which is grown in drier areas February is lower than that of bread wheat June-Jul The present yield of wheat in the U. K.(71 franc U.S.A q/ha in 1991)is over three times the pre-war figure May-September of 23 g/ha. In the U.S.A. yields have increased from 9 q/ha pre-war to 25 qha in 1987. The capacity for cereal production continues numa October-January to increase due to the use of higher-yielding November-Ja nary varieties, and by changes in husbandry. The ultimate aim of the grower is to obtain the Area, production, yield maximum yield of millable' wheat, just as it is of the plant breeder, even when he directs Between 1965 and 1989 the world wheat area his attention towards the breeding of varieties showed a small increase(215-227 M ha)while which are resistant to drought, frost and diseases wheat production doubled, from 261 to 537 Mt(Percival, 1921) per annum, reflecting the increase in world aver- Both the yield and the quality of the wheat age yield over the period, from 12 to 23.6 crop are affected by conditions of soil, climate g/ha. This increase has been due to the use of and farm management. The yield of flour obtain- more highly yielding varieties, the greater use of able from the wheat during milling is dependent fertilizers, and improved husbandry upon the degree of maturation- the extent to The area under wheat, the production, and the which individual grains are filled out with endo average yield in the principal wheat-producing sperm. Premature ripening, sometimes brought ountries and regions of the world, for four on by high temperatures prevailing in the later selected periods(1956/61, 1969/71, 1979/81 and part of the season, produces shrivelled grain 1986/88)are shown diagrammatically in Fig. 1. 2. which is of high protein content because relatively In the period 1986/88 the former Soviet Union more protein than starch is laid down in the and China each produced 18% of the world crop, endosperm during the early stages of ripening Western Europe 15. 3%, India/Pakistan 12%, the whereas the reverse holds during the later stages U.S.A. 11.2%, Eastern Europe 9. 1%, Canada 5% The effect of treatment with nitrogenous ferti urkey livers depends on the time of application and the The yield varies considerably among producing availability of nitrogen in the soil. Nitrogen taken countries and regions, and is related to the water up by the wheat plant early in growth results in supply and the intensity of cultivation. In 1990 increased tillering( see Ch 2)which can result in
4 TECHNOLOGY OF CEREALS Times of sowing and harvesting of the wheat in Ireland an average yield of 79.7 q/ha was crop in the various growing countries are natur- obtained, and 76.5 q/ha in the Netherlands; yields ally dependent upon local climatic conditions; of 42-75 q/ha were general in other northwestern wheat is being harvested in some country in every European countries in the same year. However, month of the year. However, the storage facilities in more primitive agricultural communities, in most wheat-growing countries are adequate to and in countries with less favourable climatic permit the best part of a year’s harvest being conditions, yields are still around 12 q/ha. The stored; thus, the British miller can buy wheat improvements in wheat yields since 1956/61 are from any exporting country at almost any time particularly striking in Europe (both Western and of the year. The times of harvest for the principal Eastern), China, and IndialPakistan (see Fig. 1.2). wheat-growing countries are shown in Table 1.2. Wheat yield also depends upon the type of wheat sown: winter wheat (autumn-sown), with TABLE 1.2 a longer growing period than spring wheat, normally produces a higher yield than springCountry sown wheat (cf. p. 79). The yield of durum wheat (cf. p. 79), which is grown in drier areas, is lower than that of bread wheat. India February The present yield of wheat in the U.K. (71 China May Italy June-July France June- July qiha in 1991) is over three times the pre-war figure of 23 q/ha. In the U.S.A., yields have increased U.S.A. May-September Former Soviet Union July-September Canada July-September from 9 q/ha pre-war to 25 qlha in 1987. England August-September The capacity for cereal production continues to increase due to the use of higher-yielding Australia October-January Argentina November- January varieties, and by changes in husbandry. The ultimate aim of the grower is to obtain the maximum yield of ‘millable’ wheat, just as it is of the plant breeder, even when he directs Area, production, yield Between 1965 and 1989 the world wheat area his attention towards the breeding of varieties showed a small increase (215-227 M ha) while which are resistant to drought, frost and diseases wheat production doubled, from 261 to 537 Mt (Percival, 1921). per annum, reflecting the increase in world aver- Both the yield and the quality of the wheat age yield over the period, from 12 to 23.6 crop are affected by conditions of soil, climate q/ha. This increase has been due to the use of and farm management. The yield of flour obtainmore highly yielding varieties, the greater use of able from the wheat during milling is dependent fertilizers, and improved husbandry. upon the degree of maturation - the extent to The area under wheat, the production, and the which individual grains are filled out with endoaverage yield in the principal wheat-producing sperm. Premature ripening, sometimes brought countries and regions of the world, for four on by high temperatures prevailing in the later selected periods (1956/61, 1969/71, 1979/81 and part of the season, produces shrivelled grain, 1986/88) are shown diagrammatically in Fig. 1.2. which is of high protein content because relatively In the period 1986188 the former Soviet Union more protein than starch is laid down in the and China each produced 18% of the world crop, endosperm during the early stages of ripening, Western Europe 15.3%, IndiaPakistan 12%, the whereas the reverse holds during the later stages. U.S.A. 11.2%, Eastern Europe 9.1%, Canada 5% The effect of treatment with nitrogenous fertiand Turkey 4%. lizers depends on the time of application and the The yield varies considerably among producing availability of nitrogen in the soil. Nitrogen taken countries and regions, and is related to the water up by the wheat plant early in growth results in supply and the intensity of cultivation. In 1990 increased tillering (see Ch. 2) which can result in Times of Wheat Harvest Harvest time
CEREAL CROPS: ECONOMICS, STATISTICS AND USES W Europe china Indio/P Wheat crea million ha Argentino Africo nn示 MiLlion hectare china Canada Argentina Africa w Europa hing Wheat yield q/ E Europe Austro Lig 969/71 1979/8 Argentino Africa Quintals/hectare F971 29. adud ti9 a-n988. d of rces gra th crops commonw ealth siecetaiat p.. t world in1956-1961,1969
CEREAL CROPS: ECONOMICS, STATISTICS AND USES 5 USSR W Europe USA China IndidPok E Europe Canada Turkey Australia Argentina Africa Wheat oreo million ha USSR W Europe USA China Indio/Pak E Europe Canada Turkey Australia Argentina Africa Wheat production million t Million tonnes USSR W Europe USA China lndia/Pak E Europe Canada Turkey 0 1956161 0 1969/71 m 1979/81 = 1986/88 Wheat yield q/ha Austra Lia Argentina Africa Quintals/ hectare FIG 1.2 Area, production and yield of wheat in the main producing countries and regions of the world in 1956-1961, 1969- 1971, 1979-1981 and 19861988. (Sources: Grain Crops (Commonwealth Secretariat); F.A.O.)