《火灾科学与城市安全》课程教学资源（参考教材）James G. Quintiere - Principles of Fire Behavior（1997）.pdf_P11-P15

Chapter1TheEvolutionofFireSciencesage through the atmosphere caused frictional heating,and its impact (equalingmany nuclear bombs) propelled debris and fire products into the atmosphereresulting in a soot cloud that circled the Earth and affected the atmosphere for atleast a year,causing a perpetual winter and the demise of the dinosaurs by virtu-ally eliminating theirfood supply.Thiscataclysmic event probablyoccurredmorethan once,sealing the fate of the dinosaurs.The consequences of this fire event areknown because remnants of the meteorite (iridium) have been found in variousparts of the world in the strata of rock from the same geologic time: between theCretaceousandTertiaryperiods.The so-called nuclear winter has the potential to destroy life on Earth, justas a perpetual winterdestroyed thedinosaurs.This winter effect ofalargefire waspublicized in the 1980s when nuclear warfare studies determined that the fire froma limited nuclear war could produce debris and smoke that would result in anuclear winter.Our world would be in jeopardyfrom a sustained reduction of lightand temperature.Many studies weredone to substantiate this"fallout"from evena survivable nuclear war.Thenoted sciencewriter,Carl Sagan,was one of thestrongest advocatesfor studyingthe consequences of nuclear winter.Evenbeforethe cold war ended,all nuclear parties were chilled by this possibility.INOTELongafterthedinosaurs,humankindevolvedand eventuallycultivatedfireAristotlethoughtitsufficiently importanttoclassify itas oneof thefourelementsAristotle consideredof matter: Fire, earth, air, and water, Fire was used and abused in many ways.fire sufficientlyHazel Rossotti vividly describes the uses,hazards,and spiritual qualities offire asimportanttoclassify itused by society.She describes how Cherokee Indians learned to preserve fire byas one of the fourburying a smoldering log, then digging it up and fanning it into flames.This cycli-elements of matter:cal process probably came as a surprise to those who experienced the StumpFire, earth, air, andDumpFirenear Baltimore,Maryland, in1990.This incident involved more than5acres ofburied tree stumps.Aftermanyother attempts at extinguishmentfailed,water.the stumps weremore completely buried,probably slowing the smoldering,butnot extinguishing it.FIREINTHEUNITEDSTATESHistory is punctuated with fire disasters.The Great Fire of London (1666)and theChicagoFire (1871)caused thedestructionof thousandsofbuildings.Thesewereliterallyforest fire-like events in that wind was a principal factor in their spread.Oncethewind died,the fire stopped.Mechanical suppressionapparatuscouldnotconflagration ordeal with such fires until calm conditions prevailed.These fires were conflagra-mass firetions ormass fires involving large tracts at agiven time.Their lateral flame extenta fire overa large tractis much greater than their flame height. Such fires were induced in World War IIoflandwherethein thebombingraids of Hamburg,Dresden,andTokyo,which weremoredestrucflamesaregenerallytive than the effects of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nakasaki. Indeedmuchshorterthanmany of the greatest disasters in recent history from natural phenomena are like-thehorizontalextentlytobeduetofire (seeFigure1-2),ofthefire

_ch_a_Pte_r_1_1_h_e_Ev_o_1uti_·_on_of_F_ir_e_sc_ie_n_ce _ _ ■ NOTE Aristotle considered fire sufficiently important to classify it as one of the four elements of matter: Fire, earth, air, and water. conflagration or mass fire a fire over a large tract of land where the flames are generally much shorter than the horizontal extent of the fire sage through the atmosphere caused frictional heating, and its impact (equaling many nuclear bombs) propelled debris and fire products into the atmosphere resulting in a soot cloud that circled the Earth and affected the atmosphere for at least a year, causing a perpetual winter and the demise of the dinosaurs by virtually eliminating their food supply. This cataclysmic event probably occurred more than once, sealing the fate of the dinosaurs. The consequences of this fire event are known because remnants of the meteorite (iridium) have been found in various parts of the world in the strata of rock from the same geologic time: between the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods. The so-called nuclear winter has the potential to destroy life on Earth, just as a perpetual winter destroyed the dinosaurs. This winter effect of a large fire was publicized in the 1980s when nuclear warfare studies determined that the fire from a limited nuclear war could produce debris and smoke that would result in a nuclear winter. Our world would be in jeopardy from a sustained reduction of light and temperature. Many studies were done to substantiate this "fallout" from even a survivable nuclear war. The noted science writer, Carl Sagan, was one of the strongest advocates for studying the consequences of nuclear winter. Even before the cold war ended, all nuclear parties were chilled by this possibility. Long after the dinosaurs, humankind evolved and eventually cultivated fire. Aristotle thought it sufficiently important to classify it as one of the four elements of matter: Fire, earth, air, and water. Fire was used and abused in many ways. Hazel Rossotti vividly describes the uses, hazards, and spiritual qualities of fire as used by society. 1 She describes how Cherokee Indians learned to preserve fire by burying a smoldering log, then digging it up and fanning it into flames. This cyclical process probably came as a surprise to those who experienced the Stump Dump Fire near Baltimore, Maryland, in 1990. This incident involved more than 5 acres of buried tree stumps. After many other attempts at extinguishment failed, the stumps were more completely buried, probably slowing the smoldering, but not extinguishing it. FIRE IN THE UNITED STATES History is punctuated with fire disasters. The Great Fire of London (1666) and the Chicago Fire (1871) caused the destruction of thousands of buildings. These were literally forest fire-like events in that wind was a principal factor in their spread. Once the wind died, the fire stopped. Mechanical suppression apparatus could not deal with such fires until calm conditions prevailed. These fires were conflagrations or mass fires involving large tracts at a given time. Their lateral flame extent is much greater than their flame height. Such fires were induced in World War II in the bombing raids of Hamburg, Dresden, and Tokyo, which were more destructive than the effects of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nakasaki. Indeed, many of the greatest disasters in recent history from natural phenomena are likely to be due to fire (see Figure 1-2)

Chapter1The Evolution of Fire ScienceDate ofNumberofDate ofNumberofDeathsDisasterType and LocationDeathsDisasterType and LocationFloods:Aircraft(Continued)156GalvestonTx.tidalwave6,000Sept.8,1900Crash of scheduled plane, Detroit, MichAug.16,19872,209May31,1889154July9,1982Johnstown,Pa.CrashofscheduledplaneinKenner,La.732Mar.28.1913Ohio and IndianaTwo-planecollisionoverSanDiego,144450Calif.Sept.25,1978St.Francis,Calif.,damburstMar.13,1928380Jan.22,1937CrashofscheduledplaneFt.WortOhio and Mississippi Rivervalleys135Aug.2,1985Dallas AirportHurricanes:Rallroad:Florida1,833Sept.16-17.1928101July9.1918NewEngland657Sept.21,1938Two-traincollisionnearNashville,Tenn.500Sept.29,191596Aug.7,1904LouisianaTwo-traincollision,Eden,Colo409FloridaSept.1-2.1935Avalanchehittwotrainsnear39596Mar.1,1910June 2728,1957wellington, Wash,Louisiana and TexasBridge collapse under train, Ashtabula,Tormadoes:92OhioDec.29, 1876Ilinois606Mar.18,1925Rapid transit train derallment,402MssssplApr.2-7.193692Brooklyn, N.Y.Nov.1,1918307Southern and Midwestern statesApr.3,1974Fires:272Apr.11,1965Ind.,Ohio,Mich.,ll.,and Wis229Mar.21-22.1952Peshtigo,Wis,and surroundingArk.,TennMo.,Miss.,and Ala1,152Oct.9.1871area,forest fireEarthquakes:603Dec.30,1903Iroquois Theatre, Chicago452Apr.18,1906San Francisco earthquake and fire559Oct.12,1918Northeastern Minnesotaforestfire492Alaskanearthquake-tsunamiNoV.28, 1942Cocoanut Grove nightclub, Boston173hit Hawalil, Calif.Apr.1,1946North German Lloyd120Long Beach,Calif.,earthquakeMar.10,1933326Steamships,Hoboken,N.J.June 30, 1900117Mar.27.1964Alaskan earthquakeandtsunamiExplosions:San FernandoLos Angeles,64552Apr.16, 1947Feb.9,1971Texas City.Texas,shipexplosionCalif.,earthquake322July18,1944Port Chicago,Calif.,ship explosionMarine:294Mar.18,1937NewLondn,exchooelosin1,547Apr.27,1865"Sultana"exploded—Mississippi RiverOakdalePa.,munitionsplan1,030"General Slocum"burned-East RiverJune15,1904158May.18,1918explosion"Empress of Ireland'ship collision-Eddytonamunitionpla1,024May29.1914St.LawrenceRiver133Apr.10,1917explosion812"Eastland"capsized-Chicago RiverJuly24,1915Mines:"Morro-Castle"burned-off New135361Dec.6, 1907Jersey coastSept.8,1934Monongha,w.Va,coal mine explosion263Oct.221913Dawson,N.Mex.,coalminefireAircraft:259Nov.13.1909Cherry,.l.,coalminefieCrashof scheduled plane near239Dec.19,1907JacobsCreek,Pa.,coal mine explosion273O'Hare Airport, ChicagoMay25,1979200May1,1900Scofield,Utah,coalmineexplosionSource:World Aimanac,NationalTransportationSafetyBoard,NationalWeatherService,NationalFireProtectionAssociation,ChicagoHistoricalSocietyAmerican Red Cross,Uu.S.BureaufMines,NationalceanicandAtmosphericAdministration,and cityand stateBoardsofHealthFigure1-2LifelossduetonationaldisastersintheUnitedStates.CourtesyNationalSafetyCouncil,AccidentFacts,1995Edition (Ref.2)

Chapter 1 The Evolution of Fire Science Number of Date of Number of Date of TYPe and Location Deaths Disaster fYpe and Location Deaths Disaster Floods: Aircraft (Continued): Galveston, Tx. tidal wave 6,000 Sept 8, 1900 Crash of scheduled plane, Detroit, Mich. 156 Aug 16, 1987 Johnstown, Pa. 2,209 May 31, 1889 Crash of scheduled plane in Kenner, La. 154 July 9, 1982 Ohio and Indiana 732 Mar. 28, 1913 Two-plane collision over San Diego, St Francis, Calif., dam burst 450 Mar. 13, 1928 Calif. 144 Sept 25, 1978 Ohio and Mississippi River valleys 380 Jan. 22, 1937 Crash of scheduled plane, Ft Worth/ Hurricanes: Dallas Airport 135 Aug.2,1985 Railroad: Florida 1,833 Sept 16-17, 1928 New England 657 Sept 21 , 1938 Two-train collision near Nashville, Tenn. 101 July 9, 1918 Louisiana 500 Sept 29, 1915 Two-train collision, Eden, Colo. 96 Aug. 7,1904 Florida 409 Sept 1-2, 1935 Avalanche hit two trains near Louisiana and Texas 395 June 27-28, 1957 Wellington, Wash. 96 Mar.1, 1910 Tornadoes: Bridge collapse under train, Ashtabula, Ohio 92 Dec. 29, 1876 Illinois 606 Mar. 18, 1925 Rapid transit train derailment, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia 402 Apr. 2-7, 1936 Brooklyn, N.Y. 92 Nov.1, 1918 Southern and Midwestern states 307 Apr. 3, 1974 Fires: Ind., Ohio, Mich., Ill., and Wis. 272 Apr. 11, 1965 Ark., Tenn., Mo., Miss., and Ala. 229 Mar. 21-22, 1952 Peshtigo, Wis. and surrounding Earthquakes: area, forest fire 1,152 Oct. 9, 1871 Iroquois Theatre, Chicago 603 Dec. 30, 1903 San Francisco earthquake and fire 452 Apr. 18, 1906 Northeastern Minnesota forest fire 559 Oct 12, 1918 Alaskan earthquake-tsunami Cocoanut Grove nightclub, Boston 492 Nov. 28, 1942 hit Hawaii, Calif. 173 Apr. 1, 1946 North German Lloyd Long Beach, Calif., earthquake 120 Mar. 10, 1933 Steamships, Hoboken, N.J. 326 June 30, 1900 Alaskan earthquake and tsunami 117 Mar. 27, 1964 Explosions: San Fernando-Los Angeles, Calif., earthquake 64 Feb. 9, 1971 Texas City, Texas, ship explosion 552 Apr. 16, 1947 Marine: Port Chicago, Calif., ship explosion 322 July 18, 1944 New London, Texas, school explosion 294 Mar. 18, 1937 "Sultana" exploded-Mississippi River 1,547 Apr. 27, 1865 Oakdale, Pa., munitions plant "General Slocum" burned-East River 1,030 June 15, 1904 explosion 158 May 18, 1918 "Empress of Ireland" ship collision- Eddystone, Pa. , munitions plant St Lawrence River 1,024 May 29, 1914 explosion 133 Apr. 10, 1917 "Eastland" capsized-Chicago River 812 July 24, 1915 Mines: "Morro-Castle" burned-off New Jersey coast 135 Sept 8, 1934 Monongha, W. Va., coal mine explosion 361 Dec.6,1907 Aircraft: Dawson, N. Mex., coal mine fire 263 Oct 22, 1913 Cherry, 111., coal mine fire 259 Nov. 13, 1909 Crash of scheduled plane near Jacobs Creek, Pa., coal mine explosion 239 Dec. 19, 1907 O'Hare Airport, Chicago 273 May 25, 1979 Scofield, Utah, coal mine explosion 200 May 1, 1900 source: World Almanac, National Transportation Safety Board, National Weather Service, National Fire Protection Association, Chicago Historical Society, American Red Cross, U.S. Bureau of Mines, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and city and state Boards of Health. Figure 1-2 Life loss due to national disasters in the United States. Courtesy National Safety Council, Accident Facts, 1995 Edition (Ref 2)

Chapter1The Evolution of Fire ScienceSuch enormous disasters arerelatively infrequent.It is thelocal effects offirethat have contributed toour perception of its hazard.Approximately2.5millionfires are reported in the United States each year.This suggests a fire each yearforat least 1 in 50households.Roughly 5,000deaths occur each year in the UnitedStates duetofire.Fora total populationof 250million with a life expectancyof70 years,we calculate250×10people=714people70years×5000deathsperyearINOTEorroughly1in700peoplewill diebyfire in the United Statesover your lifetimeThis fatalityfrequencyis roughly10 times more,or1in 70,thanfor automotiveRoughly1in700peopledeaths.You may have a neighborhood fire about once a year, and you may knowwill die by fire overat least one person during your lifetime who will dieby fire.These fire statisticsyour lifetime.relative to other threats do not cry out for a great concern about fire.However,fires and statistics do move people to action.Throughout the twen-tieth century much effort has been put into the prevention of and protection fromfire.In theUnited States,following the GreatFire of Baltimore (1904)and thefactthat the property loss due to fire was then ten times that of Europe,a nationalresearch program was initiated at the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) toinvestigate the consequences of fire on building construction materials.Steel andconcretebuildings were not necessarilyfound tobe"fireproof."TheNBS firepro-gram in1913was establishedunder SimonH.Ingbergwhowould head theFireResistance Section of theHeat Divisionfor thenext 40 years.In1914due toa Con-gressional mandate,funding,andthechallengeof thecomplexfireproblem,"sobroadbecamethescopeoftheinvestigatiorn thatitsoon involvedalmosteveryoneofthescientificandengineeringlaboratoriesoftheBureau."0In addition,the National Fire ProtnAssociation(NFPA)wasestablishedin1896toprovideavoluntarybasisfortechnical information and standards—rec-ommendedproceduresandpracticecerning fire safety.TheUnderwritersLaboratory (UL)and theAmerican Society ofTesting and Materials (ASTM) contributed standard test methods to assess performance infire conditions.This ledtofire resistance tests,that enable themeasurement of the endurance of structur-al elements of buildings and structures in fire. Such tests, conducted in standardINOTEfurnaces throughout the industrialized world,help to ensure that structures do notIn theearly1970s,itcollapse because of fire.But all fires do not match the conditions of the standardfire resistance furnace tests, and practices are not universal in their attempts toWas acknowledged thatmatch thetesting resultsto actual anticipated fire conditions.More striking is thethe United States hadfact that "standard"furnaces do not always impart the same fire heating condi-the highest annualtions.Standardpractices canhavesomeimperfections.death rate due to fireIn the early 1970s, it was acknowledged that the United States had the high-of the world'sest annual death rate from fire of the world's industrialized nations.Current sta-industrialized nations.tistics for industrialized countries are listed in Table 1-1

_ch_a_Pt_e,_1_,_he_E_v_o1_uti_·o_n_o_f _Fir_e_s_cie_n_ce _ ~- ■ NOTE Roughly 1 in 700 people will die by fire over your lifetime. ■ NOTE In the early 1970s, it was acknowledged that the United States had the highest annual death rate due to fire of the world's industrialized nations. Such enormous disasters are relatively infrequent. It is the local effects of fire that have contributed to our perception of its hazard. Approximately 2.5 million fires are reported in the United States each year. This suggests a fire each year for at least 1 in 50 households. Roughly 5,000 deaths occur each year in the United States due to fire. For a total population of 250 million with a life expectancy of 70 years, we calculate 250 x 106 people -~~-=-= 7 1 14 peop e 70 years x 5000 deaths per year or roughly 1 in 700 people will die by fire in the United States over your lifetime. This fatality frequency is roughly 10 times more, or 1 in 70, than for automotive deaths. You may have a neighborhood fire about once a year, and you may know at least one person during your lifetime who will die by fire. These fire statistics relative to other threats do not cry out for a great concern about fire. However, fires and statistics do move people to action. Throughout the twentieth century much effort has been put into the prevention of and protection from fire. In the United States, following the Great Fire of Baltimore (1904) and the fact that the property loss due to fire was then ten times that of Europe, a national research program was initiated at the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) to investigate the consequences of fire on building construction materials. Steel and concrete buildings were not necessarily found to be "fireproof." The NBS fire program in 1913 was established under Simon H. Ingberg who would head the Fire Resistance Section of the Heat Division for the next 40 years. In 1914 due to a Congressional mandate, funding, and the challenge of the complex fire problem, "so broad became the scope of the investigation that it soon involved almost every one of the scientific and engineering laboratories of the Bureau." 3 In addition, the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) was established in 1896 to provide a voluntary basis for technical information and standards-recommended procedures and practices-concerning fire safety. The Underwriters' Laboratory (UL) and the American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) contributed standard test methods to assess performance in fire conditions. This led to fire resistance tests, that enable the measurement of the endurance of structural elements of buildings and structures in fire. Such tests, conducted in standard furnaces throughout the industrialized world, help to ensure that structures do not collapse because of fire. But all fires do not match the conditions of the standard fire resistance furnace tests, and practices are not universal in their attempts to match the testing results to actual anticipated fire conditions. More striking is the fact that "standard" furnaces do not always impart the same fire heating conditions. Standard practices can have some imperfections. In the early 1970s, it was acknowledged that the United States had the highest annual death rate from fire of the world's industrialized nations. Current statistics for industrialized countries are listed in Table 1-1

flashover a sudden event in a room fire, leading to full involvement Chapter 1 The Evolution of Fire Science Table1-1 Annual fire death rates. Annual Deaths Annual Deaths Country per 105 persons country per 105 persons Russia* 10.60 France 1.26 Hungary 3.31 Czech Republic 1.21 India* 2.20 Germany 1.17 Finland 2.18 Australia 0.93 Union of South Africa* 2.00 New Zealand 0.92 United States 1.95 Spain 0.86 Denmark 1.64 Poland* 0.80 Norway 1.60 Austria 0.74 Canada 1.58 Netherlands 0.63 Japan 1.52 Switzerland 0.53 United Kingdom 1.49 Italy* 0.30 Belgium 1.47 China* 0.20 Sweden 1.35 Sources: From Wilmot, Ref. 4, for 1989-1992. Starred items are from Brushlinsky et al., Ref. 5 for 1994. The U.S. death rate over the last century is shown in Figure 1-3 with trends in other accidental death categories. The United States still ranks high, but the death rate has steadily decreased over the century. This fact could be attributed to better fire safety, but note that the total accidental death has decreased also. Congress passed the Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974. This act structured the U.S. Fire Administration to enhance the practice of firefighting, to improve education, to assess national fire statistics, and to develop research. It focused research on the development of fire in buildings: ignition, flame spread, smoke, and flashover (a sudden event in fire growth that rapidly leads to full involvement of a room). The safety of people rather than structures became the focus. This attitude of mandated public safety, coupled with the threat of civil suits because of fire, has motivated the increasing use of innovative fire safety technologies, including residential smoke detectors, smoke control systems in large buildings, and the extension of sprinklers to public and residential occupancies. Changing technologies bring improvements in fire safety but can also bring new risks, The high death rate due to fire in the United States and in other industrialized nations may be associated with the changing technologies with which we live. Change brings risks, some unexpected. For example, in the 1970s, lightweight