“mcs”一2017/6/5一19：42一page15一#23 1.7.Proof by Cases 15 Now since zero is the only number whose square root is zero,equation(1.4)holds f (x1-)2+(2-)2+…+(xn-)2=0. (1.5) Squares of real numbers are always nonnegative,so every term on the left-hand side of equation(1.5)is nonnegative.This means that(1.5)holds iff Every term on the left-hand side of (1.5)is zero. (1.6) But a term (xi-u)2 is zero iffxi =u,so (1.6)is true iff Every xi equals the mean. 1.7 Proof by Cases Breaking a complicated proof into cases and proving each case separately is a com- mon,useful proof strategy.Here's an amusing example. Let's agree that given any two people,either they have met or not.If every pair of people in a group has met,we'll call the group a club.If every pair of people in a group has not met,we'll call it a group of strangers. Theorem.Every collection of 6 people includes a club of 3 people or a group of 3 strangers. Proof.The proof is by case analysis5.Letx denote one of the six people.There are two cases: 1.Among 5 other people besides x,at least 3 have met x. 2.Among the 5 other people,at least 3 have not met x. Now,we have to be sure that at least one of these two cases must hold,o but that's easy:we've split the 5 people into two groups,those who have shaken hands with x and those who have not,so one of the groups must have at least half the people. Case 1:Suppose that at least 3 people did meet x. This case splits into two subcases: 5Describing your approach at the outset helps orient the reader. 6Part of a case analysis argument is showing that you've covered all the cases.This is often obvious,because the two cases are of the form"P"and"not P."However,the situation above is not stated quite so simply
“mcs” — 2017/6/5 — 19:42 — page 15 — #23 1.7. Proof by Cases 15 Now since zero is the only number whose square root is zero, equation (1.4) holds iff .x1 /2 C .x2 /2 C C .xn /2 D 0: (1.5) Squares of real numbers are always nonnegative, so every term on the left-hand side of equation (1.5) is nonnegative. This means that (1.5) holds iff Every term on the left-hand side of (1.5) is zero. (1.6) But a term .xi /2 is zero iff xi D , so (1.6) is true iff Every xi equals the mean. 1.7 Proof by Cases Breaking a complicated proof into cases and proving each case separately is a common, useful proof strategy. Here’s an amusing example. Let’s agree that given any two people, either they have met or not. If every pair of people in a group has met, we’ll call the group a club. If every pair of people in a group has not met, we’ll call it a group of strangers. Theorem. Every collection of 6 people includes a club of 3 people or a group of 3 strangers. Proof. The proof is by case analysis5 . Let x denote one of the six people. There are two cases: 1. Among 5 other people besides x, at least 3 have met x. 2. Among the 5 other people, at least 3 have not met x. Now, we have to be sure that at least one of these two cases must hold,6 but that’s easy: we’ve split the 5 people into two groups, those who have shaken hands with x and those who have not, so one of the groups must have at least half the people. Case 1: Suppose that at least 3 people did meet x. This case splits into two subcases: 5Describing your approach at the outset helps orient the reader. 6Part of a case analysis argument is showing that you’ve covered all the cases. This is often obvious, because the two cases are of the form “P” and “not P.” However, the situation above is not stated quite so simply
“mcs”一2017/6/5一19：42page16一#24 16 Chapter I What is a Proof? Case 1.1:No pair among those people met each other.Then these people are a group of at least 3 strangers.The theorem holds in this subcase. Case 1.2:Some pair among those people have met each other.Then that pair,together with x,form a club of 3 people.So the theorem holds in this subcase. This implies that the theorem holds in Case 1. Case 2:Suppose that at least 3 people did not meet x. This case also splits into two subcases: Case 2.1:Every pair among those people met each other.Then these people are a club of at least 3 people.So the theorem holds in this subcase. Case 2.2:Some pair among those people have not met each other. Then that pair,together with x,form a group of at least 3 strangers.So the theorem holds in this subcase. This implies that the theorem also holds in Case 2,and therefore holds in all cases. 1.8 Proof by Contradiction In a proof by contradiction,or indirect proof,you show that if a proposition were false,then some false fact would be true.Since a false fact by definition can't be true,the proposition must be true. Proof by contradiction is always a viable approach.However,as the name sug- gests,indirect proofs can be a little convoluted,so direct proofs are generally prefer- able when they are available. Method:In order to prove a proposition P by contradiction: l.Write,“We use proof by contradiction.” 2.Write,“Suppose P is false.” 3.Deduce something known to be false(a logical contradiction). 4.Write,"This is a contradiction.Therefore,P must be true
“mcs” — 2017/6/5 — 19:42 — page 16 — #24 Chapter 1 What is a Proof?16 Case 1.1: No pair among those people met each other. Then these people are a group of at least 3 strangers. The theorem holds in this subcase. Case 1.2: Some pair among those people have met each other. Then that pair, together with x, form a club of 3 people. So the theorem holds in this subcase. This implies that the theorem holds in Case 1. Case 2: Suppose that at least 3 people did not meet x. This case also splits into two subcases: Case 2.1: Every pair among those people met each other. Then these people are a club of at least 3 people. So the theorem holds in this subcase. Case 2.2: Some pair among those people have not met each other. Then that pair, together with x, form a group of at least 3 strangers. So the theorem holds in this subcase. This implies that the theorem also holds in Case 2, and therefore holds in all cases. 1.8 Proof by Contradiction In a proof by contradiction, or indirect proof, you show that if a proposition were false, then some false fact would be true. Since a false fact by definition can’t be true, the proposition must be true. Proof by contradiction is always a viable approach. However, as the name suggests, indirect proofs can be a little convoluted, so direct proofs are generally preferable when they are available. Method: In order to prove a proposition P by contradiction: 1. Write, “We use proof by contradiction.” 2. Write, “Suppose P is false.” 3. Deduce something known to be false (a logical contradiction). 4. Write, “This is a contradiction. Therefore, P must be true
“mcs”一2017/6/5一19：42一page17一#25 1.9.Good Proofs in Practice 17 Example We'll prove by contradiction that v2 is irrational.Remember that a number is ra- tional if it is equal to a ratio of integers-for example,3.5=7/2 and 0.1111...= 1/9 are rational numbers. Theorem 1.8.1.v2 is irrational. Proof.We use proof by contradiction.Suppose the claim is false,and v2 is ratio- nal.Then we can write v2 as a fraction n/d in lowest terms. Squaring both sides gives 2 =n2/d2 and so 2d2 =n2.This implies that n is a multiple of 2(see Problems 1.15 and 1.16).Therefore n2 must be a multiple of 4. But since 2d2 =n2,we know 2d2 is a multiple of 4 and so d2 is a multiple of 2. This implies that d is a multiple of 2. So,the numerator and denominator have 2 as a common factor,which contradicts the fact that n/d is in lowest terms.Thus,v2 must be irrational. ■ 1.9 Good Proofs in Practice One purpose of a proof is to establish the truth of an assertion with absolute cer- tainty,and mechanically checkable proofs of enormous length or complexity can accomplish this.But humanly intelligible proofs are the only ones that help some- one understand the subject.Mathematicians generally agree that important mathe- matical results can't be fully understood until their proofs are understood.That is why proofs are an important part of the curriculum. To be understandable and helpful,more is required of a proof than just logical correctness:a good proof must also be clear.Correctness and clarity usually go together;a well-written proof is more likely to be a correct proof,since mistakes are harder to hide. In practice,the notion of proof is a moving target.Proofs in a professional research journal are generally unintelligible to all but a few experts who know all the terminology and prior results used in the proof.Conversely,proofs in the first weeks of a beginning course like 6.042 would be regarded as tediously long-winded by a professional mathematician.In fact,what we accept as a good proof later in the term will be different from what we consider good proofs in the first couple of weeks of 6.042.But even so,we can offer some general tips on writing good proofs: State your game plan.A good proof begins by explaining the general line of rea- soning,for example,"We use case analysis"or "We argue by contradiction
“mcs” — 2017/6/5 — 19:42 — page 17 — #25 1.9. Good Proofs in Practice 17 Example We’ll prove by contradiction that p 2 is irrational. Remember that a number is rational if it is equal to a ratio of integers—for example, 3:5 D 7=2 and 0:1111 D 1=9 are rational numbers. Theorem 1.8.1. p 2 is irrational. Proof. We use proof by contradiction. Suppose the claim is false, and p 2 is rational. Then we can write p 2 as a fraction n=d in lowest terms. Squaring both sides gives 2 D n 2=d 2 and so 2d 2 D n 2 . This implies that n is a multiple of 2 (see Problems 1.15 and 1.16). Therefore n 2 must be a multiple of 4. But since 2d 2 D n 2 , we know 2d 2 is a multiple of 4 and so d 2 is a multiple of 2. This implies that d is a multiple of 2. So, the numerator and denominator have 2 as a common factor, which contradicts the fact that n=d is in lowest terms. Thus, p 2 must be irrational. 1.9 Good Proofs in Practice One purpose of a proof is to establish the truth of an assertion with absolute certainty, and mechanically checkable proofs of enormous length or complexity can accomplish this. But humanly intelligible proofs are the only ones that help someone understand the subject. Mathematicians generally agree that important mathematical results can’t be fully understood until their proofs are understood. That is why proofs are an important part of the curriculum. To be understandable and helpful, more is required of a proof than just logical correctness: a good proof must also be clear. Correctness and clarity usually go together; a well-written proof is more likely to be a correct proof, since mistakes are harder to hide. In practice, the notion of proof is a moving target. Proofs in a professional research journal are generally unintelligible to all but a few experts who know all the terminology and prior results used in the proof. Conversely, proofs in the first weeks of a beginning course like 6.042 would be regarded as tediously long-winded by a professional mathematician. In fact, what we accept as a good proof later in the term will be different from what we consider good proofs in the first couple of weeks of 6.042. But even so, we can offer some general tips on writing good proofs: State your game plan. A good proof begins by explaining the general line of reasoning, for example, “We use case analysis” or “We argue by contradiction
“mcs”一2017/6/5一19：42page18一#26 18 Chapter I What is a Proof? Keep a linear flow.Sometimes proofs are written like mathematical mosaics,with juicy tidbits of independent reasoning sprinkled throughout.This is not good. The steps of an argument should follow one another in an intelligible order. A proof is an essay,not a calculation.Many students initially write proofs the way they compute integrals.The result is a long sequence of expressions without explanation,making it very hard to follow.This is bad.A good proof usually looks like an essay with some equations thrown in.Use complete sentences. Avoid excessive symbolism.Your reader is probably good at understanding words, but much less skilled at reading arcane mathematical symbols.Use words where you reasonably can. Revise and simplify.Your readers will be grateful. Introduce notation thoughtfully.Sometimes an argument can be greatly simpli- fied by introducing a variable,devising a special notation,or defining a new term.But do this sparingly,since you're requiring the reader to remember all that new stuff.And remember to actually define the meanings of new variables,terms,or notations;don't just start using them! Structure long proofs.Long programs are usually broken into a hierarchy of smaller procedures.Long proofs are much the same.When your proof needed facts that are easily stated,but not readily proved,those fact are best pulled out as preliminary lemmas.Also,if you are repeating essentially the same argu- ment over and over,try to capture that argument in a general lemma,which you can cite repeatedly instead. Be wary of the"obvious."When familiar or truly obvious facts are needed in a proof,it's OK to label them as such and to not prove them.But remember that what's obvious to you may not be-and typically is not-obvious to your reader. Most especially,don't use phrases like "clearly"or"obviously"in an attempt to bully the reader into accepting something you're having trouble proving. Also,go on the alert whenever you see one of these phrases in someone else's proof. Finish.At some point in a proof,you'll have established all the essential facts you need.Resist the temptation to quit and leave the reader to draw the "obvious"conclusion.Instead,tie everything together yourself and explain why the original claim follows
“mcs” — 2017/6/5 — 19:42 — page 18 — #26 Chapter 1 What is a Proof?18 Keep a linear flow. Sometimes proofs are written like mathematical mosaics, with juicy tidbits of independent reasoning sprinkled throughout. This is not good. The steps of an argument should follow one another in an intelligible order. A proof is an essay, not a calculation. Many students initially write proofs the way they compute integrals. The result is a long sequence of expressions without explanation, making it very hard to follow. This is bad. A good proof usually looks like an essay with some equations thrown in. Use complete sentences. Avoid excessive symbolism. Your reader is probably good at understanding words, but much less skilled at reading arcane mathematical symbols. Use words where you reasonably can. Revise and simplify. Your readers will be grateful. Introduce notation thoughtfully. Sometimes an argument can be greatly simpli- fied by introducing a variable, devising a special notation, or defining a new term. But do this sparingly, since you’re requiring the reader to remember all that new stuff. And remember to actually define the meanings of new variables, terms, or notations; don’t just start using them! Structure long proofs. Long programs are usually broken into a hierarchy of smaller procedures. Long proofs are much the same. When your proof needed facts that are easily stated, but not readily proved, those fact are best pulled out as preliminary lemmas. Also, if you are repeating essentially the same argument over and over, try to capture that argument in a general lemma, which you can cite repeatedly instead. Be wary of the “obvious.” When familiar or truly obvious facts are needed in a proof, it’s OK to label them as such and to not prove them. But remember that what’s obvious to you may not be—and typically is not—obvious to your reader. Most especially, don’t use phrases like “clearly” or “obviously” in an attempt to bully the reader into accepting something you’re having trouble proving. Also, go on the alert whenever you see one of these phrases in someone else’s proof. Finish. At some point in a proof, you’ll have established all the essential facts you need. Resist the temptation to quit and leave the reader to draw the “obvious” conclusion. Instead, tie everything together yourself and explain why the original claim follows
“mcs”一2017/6/5一19：42一page19一#27 1.10.References 19 Creating a good proof is a lot like creating a beautiful work of art.In fact, mathematicians often refer to really good proofs as being"elegant"or"beautiful." It takes a practice and experience to write proofs that merit such praises,but to get you started in the right direction,we will provide templates for the most useful proof techniques. Throughout the text there are also examples of bogus proofs-arguments that look like proofs but aren't.Sometimes a bogus proof can reach false conclusions because of missteps or mistaken assumptions.More subtle bogus proofs reach correct conclusions,but do so in improper ways such as circular reasoning,leaping to unjustified conclusions,or saying that the hard part of the proof is "left to the reader."Learning to spot the flaws in improper proofs will hone your skills at seeing how each proof step follows logically from prior steps.It will also enable you to spot flaws in your own proofs. The analogy between good proofs and good programs extends beyond structure. The same rigorous thinking needed for proofs is essential in the design of criti- cal computer systems.When algorithms and protocols only "mostly work"due to reliance on hand-waving arguments,the results can range from problematic to catastrophic.An early example was the Therac 25,a machine that provided radia- tion therapy to cancer victims,but occasionally killed them with massive overdoses due to a software race condition.A further example of a dozen years ago (August 2004)involved a single faulty command to a computer system used by United and American Airlines that grounded the entire fleet of both companies-and all their passengers! It is a certainty that we'll all one day be at the mercy of critical computer systems designed by you and your classmates.So we really hope that you'll develop the ability to formulate rock-solid logical arguments that a system actually does what you think it should do! 1.10 References [14],[1],[49,[18],[22]
“mcs” — 2017/6/5 — 19:42 — page 19 — #27 1.10. References 19 Creating a good proof is a lot like creating a beautiful work of art. In fact, mathematicians often refer to really good proofs as being “elegant” or “beautiful.” It takes a practice and experience to write proofs that merit such praises, but to get you started in the right direction, we will provide templates for the most useful proof techniques. Throughout the text there are also examples of bogus proofs—arguments that look like proofs but aren’t. Sometimes a bogus proof can reach false conclusions because of missteps or mistaken assumptions. More subtle bogus proofs reach correct conclusions, but do so in improper ways such as circular reasoning, leaping to unjustified conclusions, or saying that the hard part of the proof is “left to the reader.” Learning to spot the flaws in improper proofs will hone your skills at seeing how each proof step follows logically from prior steps. It will also enable you to spot flaws in your own proofs. The analogy between good proofs and good programs extends beyond structure. The same rigorous thinking needed for proofs is essential in the design of critical computer systems. When algorithms and protocols only “mostly work” due to reliance on hand-waving arguments, the results can range from problematic to catastrophic. An early example was the Therac 25, a machine that provided radiation therapy to cancer victims, but occasionally killed them with massive overdoses due to a software race condition. A further example of a dozen years ago (August 2004) involved a single faulty command to a computer system used by United and American Airlines that grounded the entire fleet of both companies—and all their passengers! It is a certainty that we’ll all one day be at the mercy of critical computer systems designed by you and your classmates. So we really hope that you’ll develop the ability to formulate rock-solid logical arguments that a system actually does what you think it should do! 1.10 References [14], [1], [49], [18], [22]