The operational amplifier (hereafter OP-AMP)is developed in the 1940s primarily for use in analog computers, made cheaply and readily available in the late 1960s through integrated-circuit technology. The actual construction of a modern OP-AMP is indeed very complex, involving many transistors, diodes, resistors and capacitors

Equation is satisfied when=. The maximum power is=

One of the main uses of Thevenin's and Norton's theorems is the replacement of a large part of network very simple equivalent

Let us first define a linear element as passive element that has a linear voltage-current relationship

Mesh analysis is applicable only to those networks, which are planar. If it is possible to draw the diagram of a circuit on a plane surface in such a way that no branch passes over or under any other branch, then that circuit is said to be planar circuit. (Non-planar-circuit

We select one node as a reference node and then define a voltage between each remaining node and the reference node

The voltage division The current division

The ideal voltage source and a series resistance comprise a practical voltage source

Any given arm of the Y network is found by taking the product of the two adjacent arms of the network and dividing by the sum of the network arms

The series combination of voltage sources: Several voltage sources in series may be replaced by an equivalent voltage source having a voltage equal to the algebraic sum of the individual sources