ExperimentalManualofHumanAnatomyarticulation withthehipbone.Theanterior surfaceis smooth and concaveand calledpelvicsurface. The posterior surface is rough and convex, and the central longitudinal ridge is calledmedian sacral crest.The pelvic surface has four pairs of anterior sacral foramina and theposterior surface has four pairs of posterior sacral foramina for the exit of the anterior andposterior rami of the spinal nerve. The sacral canal is in the sacrum which leads to the sacralhiatus inferiorly6.Coccyx: it is usually formed by four fused coccygeal vertebrae.The coccyx may fuse with thesacrum.Il.Articulations of thevertebral column[Articulationsbetweenthevertebrae]Using articulated vertebrae to observe thefollowing structures1.Intervertebral discs:located between the bodies of vertebrae from C2to sacrum.Theintervertebral discs consist of an inner nucleus pulposus and an outer annulusfibrosus2.Ligaments(l) anterior longitudinal ligament: attaches the vertebral bodies and intervertebral discs at theiranterior surfaces,extendsfromtheC1and occipital boneto thesacrum(2)posterior longitudinal ligament:attaches the posterior aspects ofthe bodies and discsfromC2 to the sacrum(3) supraspinous ligament: connect the tips of the spinous processes from the C7to the sacrum(4) interspinous ligaments: connect the spinous processes of adjacent vertebrae(5)ligamentaflava:paleyellowbands of elastictissuewhich connectthelaminaeofadjacentvertebrae.3.Zygapophysial joints: located between the superior and inferior articular processes on adjacentvertebrae.Theypermit glidingmovements between thearticularprocesses[Craniovertebral joints]1.Atlanto-occipital joints: the articulations arebetween the superior articular surfaces ofCl and16
Experimental Manual of Human Anatomy 16 articulation with the hip bone. The anterior surface is smooth and concave and called pelvic surface. The posterior surface is rough and convex, and the central longitudinal ridge is called median sacral crest. The pelvic surface has four pairs of anterior sacral foramina and the posterior surface has four pairs of posterior sacral foramina for the exit of the anterior and posterior rami of the spinal nerve. The sacral canal is in the sacrum which leads to the sacral hiatusinferiorly. 6. Coccyx: it is usually formed by four fused coccygeal vertebrae. The coccyx may fuse with the sacrum. II. Articulations of the vertebral column [Articulations between the vertebrae] Using articulated vertebrae to observe the following structures. 1. Intervertebral discs: located between the bodies of vertebrae from C2 to sacrum. The intervertebral discs consist of an inner nucleus pulposus and an outer annulus fibrosus. 2. Ligaments (1) anterior longitudinal ligament: attaches the vertebral bodies and intervertebral discs at their anterior surfaces; extends from the C1 and occipital bone to the sacrum. (2) posterior longitudinal ligament: attaches the posterior aspects of the bodies and discs from C2 to the sacrum. (3) supraspinous ligament: connect the tips of the spinous processes from the C7 to the sacrum. (4) interspinous ligaments: connect the spinous processes of adjacent vertebrae. (5) ligamenta flava: pale yellow bands of elastic tissue which connect the laminae of adjacent vertebrae. 3. Zygapophysial joints: located between the superior and inferior articular processes on adjacent vertebrae. They permit gliding movements between the articular processes. [Craniovertebral joints] 1. Atlanto-occipital joints: the articulations are between the superior articular surfaces of C1 and
ExperimentalManualofHumanAnatomythe occipital condyles. The main movements are flexion (nodding of the head) and extension ofthe head with little lateral flexion.2.Atlanto-axial joints:is composed of three articulations.(1)two lateral atlantoaxial joints arebetween the inferior articular surfaces of C1 and superior articular surfaces of C2; (2)onemedian atlantoaxial joint is between the dens of C2 and the anterior arch of C1. These jointspermit the head to be turned from side to sideTheabove two joints work together to produce nodding,rotation and lateralflexion of the head.[Vertebral column asa whole]In adults the length of the vertebral column is approximate 70 cm1.Observethevertebralcolumnofanarticulatedskeletonorpalpatethespinousprocessesofyouownvertebral column.Identifyall thespinous processesthatare located intheposteriormedianline of the body2.Palpateyour own spinous process of C7when the head is tilted down.Putyour hands on hipsand makethethumbs point posteriorly,then move thethumbstoward eachothertomeetin theposterior median line. The meeting point usually across the spinous process of L4 or the regionbetween L3 and L4.3.The range of movement ofthe vertebral column varies accordingto the regions.Cervical andlumbar regions show more mobility than elsewhere. The junction between the mobile region(cervical, lumbar) and stabilized region (thoracic, sacral) is usually the weak point whenattacked by the lateral force.4.Observethevertebral columnfrom lateral view,noticethat ithas4normal curvatures:cervical,thoracic, lumbar, and sacral curvatures. All curvatures develop because of the stresses placedon it. Among them the cervical and lumbar curvatures convex anteriorly while the thoracic andsacral curvatures concaveanteriorlyToremember the features of a whole vertebral column, all the above can be summarized asoneline, two points, three weak points, four curvatures"17
Experimental Manual of Human Anatomy 17 the occipital condyles. The main movements are flexion (nodding of the head) and extension of the head with little lateral flexion. 2. Atlanto-axial joints: is composed of three articulations. (1) two lateral atlantoaxial joints are between the inferior articular surfaces of C1 and superior articular surfaces of C2; (2) one median atlantoaxial joint is between the dens of C2 and the anterior arch of C1. These joints permit the head to be turned from side to side. The above two joints work together to produce nodding, rotation and lateral flexion of the head. [Vertebral column as a whole] In adults the length of the vertebral column is approximate 70 cm. 1. Observe the vertebral column of an articulated skeleton or palpate the spinous processes of your own vertebral column. Identify all the spinous processes that are located in the posterior median line of the body. 2. Palpate your own spinous process of C7 when the head is tilted down. Put your hands on hips and make the thumbs point posteriorly, then move the thumbs toward each other to meet in the posterior median line. The meeting point usually across the spinous process of L4 or the region between L3 and L4. 3. The range of movement of the vertebral column varies according to the regions. Cervical and lumbar regions show more mobility than elsewhere. The junction between the mobile region (cervical, lumbar) and stabilized region (thoracic, sacral) is usually the weak point when attacked by the lateral force. 4. Observe the vertebral column from lateral view, notice that it has 4 normal curvatures: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral curvatures. All curvatures develop because of the stresses placed on it. Among them the cervical and lumbar curvatures convex anteriorly while the thoracic and sacral curvatures concave anteriorly. To remember the features of a whole vertebral column, all the above can be summarized as “one line, two points, three weak points, four curvatures
ExperimentalManualofHumanAnatomySection 2 Thoracic cageThe thoracic cage consists of 12 thoracic vertebrae,12pairs of ribsand associated costalcartilages, and the sternumLBones ofthethoracic cage1.Sternum: It has three parts: the manubrium, the body and the xiphoid process. All three partsare fused together during late adulthood. The manubrium is the widest and thickest of thesternum.The superolateral margin of themanubrium displays the clavicular notches.Theshallowdepression between the clavicularnotches is the jugularnotch (suprasternal notch)Palpate the jugular notch on your own body and then move your fingers inferiorly until a ridgeis palpated, This is the sternal angle. The sternal angle lies at the junction between themanubrium and the body where the second costal cartilage attachesRibs:12 pairs of ribs are curved flat bones2.Typical ribs: ribs 3-10 are typical ribs. They have following components(1)Head:is the posterior end whicharticulate with the thoracic vertebra.It hastwo articular facetsseparated by the crest of the head.(2)Neck:lies betweentheheadandtubercle,(3)Tubercle:has anarticularfacetforarticulation withthetransversecostal facet(4) Body (shaft): curved and flat. The site where the body turns anterolaterally is the costal angleTheinferior internal surfacehasa costal groovewhich providesprotectionforthe intercostalnerves and vessels.The first rib: it is the shortest and most sharply curved rib. The head has a single articular facet forarticulation with the T1 only.The internal margin of the superior surface has a scalene tuberclewhich provides attachment for anterior scalenemuscle.On either sideof the scalene tubercle it hasgrooves for the passage of subclavian vesselsII.Articulations of the thoracic cage18
Experimental Manual of Human Anatomy 18 Section 2 Thoracic cage The thoracic cage consists of 12 thoracic vertebrae, 12 pairs of ribs and associated costal cartilages, and the sternum. I. Bones of the thoracic cage 1. Sternum: It has three parts: the manubrium, the body and the xiphoid process. All three parts are fused together during late adulthood. The manubrium is the widest and thickest of the sternum. The superolateral margin of the manubrium displays the clavicular notches. The shallow depression between the clavicular notches is the jugular notch (suprasternal notch). Palpate the jugular notch on your own body and then move your fingers inferiorly until a ridge is palpated. This is the sternal angle. The sternal angle lies at the junction between the manubrium and the body where the second costal cartilage attaches. 2. Ribs: 12 pairs of ribs are curved flat bones. Typical ribs: ribs 3-10 are typical ribs. They have following components (1) Head: is the posterior end which articulate with the thoracic vertebra. It has two articular facets separated by the crest of the head. (2) Neck: lies between the head and tubercle. (3) Tubercle: has an articular facet for articulation with the transverse costal facet. (4) Body (shaft): curved and flat. The site where the body turns anterolaterally is the costal angle. The inferior internal surface has a costal groove which provides protection for the intercostal nerves and vessels. The first rib: it is the shortest and most sharply curved rib. The head has a single articular facet for articulation with the T1 only. The internal margin of the superior surface has a scalene tubercle which provides attachment for anterior scalene muscle. On either side of the scalene tubercle it has grooves for the passage of subclavian vessels. II. Articulations of the thoracic cage
ExperimentalManualofHumanAnatomy1.Sternocostal jointsRibs 1-7 are called true ribs because their costal cartilages connect to the sternum directly. Thejoints between the 1st costal cartilages and the manubrium is a fibrocartilaginous connection. The2nd.7th pairs of costal cartilages articulate with the sternum at synovial joints. Ribs 8-10 are falseribs because their costal cartilages attach to the costal cartilage of rib 7 and then connect to thesternum indirectly. Ribs 11-12 are floating ribs because they don't attach to the sternum2.Costovertebral joints(1)Jointsof heads:betweentheheads ofribs and thecostalfacets onthevertebral bodies(2) Costotransverse joints:between thetubercles of ribs and thetransverse costal facetsThe thoracic cage is narrow above and broad below, the transverse dimension is longer than theanteroposterior dimension.In the superior part the ribs present a more horizontal position while inthe inferior part the ribs are placed more obliquely.The superior thoracic aperture is bounded by superior border of the manubrium, the 1stpair of ribsand their costal cartilages and the 1st thoracic vertebra.The aperture slopes anteroposteriorlyThe inferior thoracic aperture is much larger. It is bounded by the 12th thoracic vertebra, the 1ith and12th pairs ofribs,andthecostal arch, thexiphoidprocess(Jin Xu)Chapter3BonesandarticulationsofupperlimbLearning Objectives:1.Identifythecomposition,division,positionandfunctionofupperlimbbones2.Describe the position, shape and structure of humerus, ulna and radius3.Comprehend the composition,characteristics and movementforms of shoulder joint, elbow19
Experimental Manual of Human Anatomy 19 1. Sternocostal joints Ribs 1-7 are called true ribs because their costal cartilages connect to the sternum directly. The joints between the 1st costal cartilages and the manubrium is a fibrocartilaginous connection. The 2 nd -7 th pairs of costal cartilages articulate with the sternum at synovial joints. Ribs 8-10 are false ribs because their costal cartilages attach to the costal cartilage of rib 7 and then connect to the sternum indirectly. Ribs 11-12 are floating ribs because they don’t attach to the sternum. 2. Costovertebral joints (1) Joints of heads: between the heads of ribs and the costal facets on the vertebral bodies (2) Costotransverse joints: between the tubercles of ribs and the transverse costal facets The thoracic cage is narrow above and broad below, the transverse dimension is longer than the anteroposterior dimension. In the superior part the ribs present a more horizontal position while in the inferior part the ribs are placed more obliquely. The superior thoracic aperture is bounded by superior border of the manubrium, the 1st pair of ribs and their costal cartilages and the 1st thoracic vertebra. The aperture slopes anteroposteriorly. The inferior thoracic aperture is much larger. It is bounded by the 12th thoracic vertebra, the 11th and 12th pairs of ribs, and the costal arch, the xiphoid process. (Jin Xu) Chapter 3 Bones and articulations of upper limb Learning Objectives: 1. Identify the composition, division, position and function of upper limb bones. 2. Describe the position, shape and structure of humerus, ulna and radius. 3. Comprehend the composition, characteristics and movement forms of shoulder joint, elbow
ExperimentalManualofHumanAnatomy joint and radial-wrist joint.Theupper limb is the organ of humanlabor,and its movement is extremelyflexible anddiverse. Therefore, the upper limbs are slender and light, and the joint of upper limbs is mainlyflexible.These important features are evident in the shape of upper limb bones and boneconnections. In learning,we should think more about them and pay attention to comparing themwith the corresponding parts of lower limbs in order to deepen our understanding.Section 1Bones of upper limbThe bones of upper limb include the shoulder girdle and the bones of free upper limb. Using theillustrationsas areference,findthefollowingbonesto observeIL. ShouldergirdleThe shoulder girdle consists of the clavicle and the scapula1.ClavicleTheclavicleliesalmosthorizontallybetweenthesternumandtheacromionof scapulaanterolateraltothe superiorapertureof the thoracic cage.Find aclaviclefrom theBONEBOXand observe.It is"s"shaped with two ends and a shaft.The medial or sternal end is rounded andarticulates withthemanubrium sterni by the sternoclavicular joint.Thelateral or acromialend isflattenedfrom above downwards and articulates with the acromion of scapula by theacromioclavicular joint. The shaft curves like the letter "s", and is convex forwards in its medialtwo thirds, but convex backwards in its lateral one third.Its superior surface is smooth, whereasthe inferior surface is rough.The clavicle is subcutaneous and can bepalpated throughout itslength. The most common site of fracture is the junction of the middle and lateral thirds of thebone, which istheweakest point.2.ScapulaThescapula lieson theposterolateral aspectofthethoracic cage,overlyingthe2ndto7thribsFind a clavicle from the BONE BOX and observe. It is a triangular flat bone, with two surfaces20
Experimental Manual of Human Anatomy 20 joint and radial-wrist joint. The upper limb is the organ of human labor, and its movement is extremely flexible and diverse. Therefore, the upper limbs are slender and light, and the joint of upper limbs is mainly flexible. These important features are evident in the shape of upper limb bones and bone connections. In learning, we should think more about them and pay attention to comparing them with the corresponding parts of lower limbs in order to deepen our understanding. Section 1 Bones of upper limb The bones of upper limb include the shoulder girdle and the bones of free upper limb. Using the illustrations as a reference, find the following bones to observe. I. Shoulder girdle: The shoulder girdle consists of the clavicle and the scapula. 1. Clavicle The clavicle lies almost horizontally between the sternum and the acromion of scapula, anterolateral to the superior aperture of the thoracic cage. Find a clavicle from the BONE BOX and observe. It is "S"shaped with two ends and a shaft. The medial or sternal end is rounded and articulates with the manubrium sterni by the sternoclavicular joint. The lateral or acromial end is flattened from above downwards and articulates with the acromion of scapula by the acromioclavicular joint. The shaft curves like the letter "S”, and is convex forwards in its medial two thirds, but convex backwards in its lateral one third. Its superior surface is smooth, whereas the inferior surface is rough. The clavicle is subcutaneous and can be palpated throughout its length. The most common site of fracture is the junction of the middle and lateral thirds of the bone, which is the weakest point. 2. Scapula The scapula lies on the posterolateral aspect of the thoracic cage, overlying the 2nd to 7th ribs. Find a clavicle from the BONE BOX and observe. It is a triangular flat bone, with two surfaces