ExperimentalManualofHumanAnatomyIntroductionLearning Objectives:1.Understandthedefinitionofhumananatomyand its subspecialties2.Define thegross anatomyand its subdivisions3.List the major organ systems and their functions4.Comprehend theanatomical position, directional terms and relational planesIDefinitionofAnatomyAnatomy is the study of structure. To be precise, human anatomy is the study of external and internalstructures and the physical relationship among body parts. The subject of human anatomy is a broadfield and canbesubdividedintonumerous subspecialties.Herelistafewofthem1.Gross anatomy: the study of structures observed with the unaided eye(I) Systemic anatomy: the body is divided into organ systems, each system is studied and followedthroughout the entire body.(2) Regional anatomy: the body is divided into regions, each region is studied separately and allaspects of that region are studied at the same time.2.Microscopic anatomy:the study of structures observedwith the aidof amicroscope (cytologyhistology).3.Developmental anatomy:thestudy of structural changes from conception to physical maturity4.Pathological anatomy: the study of structural changes caused by disease.II. Organ systems of the body The nine organ systems and their major functions are shown in thefollowing tableOrgan systemMajorfunctionsLocomotorsystemSkeletal systemSupport, protection of soft tissue, mineral storage, blood cell6
Experimental Manual of Human Anatomy 6 Introduction Learning Objectives: 1. Understand the definition of human anatomy and its subspecialties. 2. Define the gross anatomy and its subdivisions. 3. List the major organ systems and their functions. 4. Comprehend the anatomical position, directional terms and relational planes. I. Definition of Anatomy Anatomy is the study of structure. To be precise, human anatomy is the study of external and internal structures and the physical relationship among body parts. The subject of human anatomy is a broad field and can be subdivided into numerous subspecialties. Here list a few of them: 1. Gross anatomy: the study of structures observed with the unaided eye. (1) Systemic anatomy: the body is divided into organ systems, each system is studied and followed throughout the entire body. (2) Regional anatomy: the body is divided into regions, each region is studied separately and all aspects of that region are studied at the same time. 2. Microscopic anatomy: the study of structures observed with the aid of a microscope (cytology, histology). 3. Developmental anatomy: the study of structural changes from conception to physical maturity. 4. Pathological anatomy: the study of structural changes caused by disease. II. Organ systems of the body The nine organ systems and their major functions are shown in the following table Organ system Major functions Locomotor system Skeletal system Support, protection of soft tissue, mineral storage, blood cell
ExperimentalManualofHumanAnatomyformationMuscular systemMovement, supportDigestion of foodDigestive systemRespiratory systemGas exchangeUrinary systemWasteexcretionReproductive systemProduction of sex cells and hormonesCirculatorysystemCardiovascularsystemInternaltransportationLymphatic systemDefense against infection and diseaseSense organsVision,hearingandequilibriumShort-term control over activities of other systemsNervous systemEndocrine systemDirecting long-termchanges intheactivitiesofothersystemsIL.The Anatomical position, Relational planes, Terms of DirectionThe anatomical position: All anatomical terms are used after assuming the body is in the1.anatomical position. In the anatomical position, an individual is standing up with the feetparallel and flat on the floor, and the arms are at each side of the body with the palms facinganterior.2.Relational planes:to examine the internal structure, viewing sections of an organ or body isrequired and is increasingly important when the medical imaging techniques are usedextensively.Three major planes are shown in the following tablePlaneDescriptionCoronal (frontal)Oriented vertically and divide the body into anterior and posterior parts MidsagittalPasses through the center of the body dividing it into equal right and(median)left halves Sagittaloriented vertically, and divide the body into right and left parts7
Experimental Manual of Human Anatomy 7 formation Muscular system Movement, support Digestive system Digestion of food Respiratory system Gas exchange Urinary system Waste excretion Reproductive system Production of sex cells and hormones Circulatory system Cardiovascular system Internal transportation Lymphatic system Defense against infection and disease Sense organs Vision, hearing and equilibrium Nervous system Short-term control over activities of other systems Endocrine system Directing long-term changes in the activities of other systems III. The Anatomical position, Relational planes, Terms of Direction 1. The anatomical position: All anatomical terms are used after assuming the body is in the anatomical position. In the anatomical position, an individual is standing up with the feet parallel and flat on the floor, and the arms are at each side of the body with the palms facing anterior. 2. Relational planes: to examine the internal structure, viewing sections of an organ or body is required and is increasingly important when the medical imaging techniques are used extensively. Three major planes are shown in the following table: Plane Description Coronal (frontal) Oriented vertically and divide the body into anterior and posterior parts Midsagittal (median) Passes through the center of the body dividing it into equal right and left halves Sagittal oriented vertically, and divide the body into right and left parts
ExperimentalManualofHumanAnatomy (parasagittal)TransverseDivide the body into superior and inferior parts(horizontal)3.Directional termsSpecificdirectional terms areused in anatomy to describe therelative positions ofvarious structures.The following table lists the directional terms and their definitionsDefinitionDirectional termIn frontof,toward thefront surfaceAnterior (ventral)Posterior (dorsal)Behind; toward the back surfaceSuperiorAbove, closer to the headInferiorBelow, closer to the feetCranialAt the head endCaudalAt the tail or rear endSuperficialCloser to the body surfaceDeepFurther awayfromthebody surfaceMedialTowardthemidlineofthebodyLateralAwayfromthemidlineofthebodyProximalCloser to the trunk or origin DistalFurther away to the trunk or originPartI LocomotorSystemChapter1 Introduction to Osteology andArthrologyLearning Objectives:1.Identify the characteristics of long, short, flat, and irregular bones.2.Comprehendthestructureandfunctionofthebones8
Experimental Manual of Human Anatomy 8 (parasagittal) Transverse (horizontal) Divide the body into superior and inferior parts 3. Directional terms Specific directional terms are used in anatomy to describe the relative positions of various structures. The following table lists the directional terms and their definitions. Directional term Definition Anterior (ventral) In front of; toward the front surface Posterior (dorsal) Behind; toward the back surface Superior Above; closer to the head Inferior Below; closer to the feet Cranial At the head end Caudal At the tail or rear end Superficial Closer to the body surface Deep Further away from the body surface Medial Toward the midline of the body Lateral Away from the midline of the body Proximal Closer to the trunk or origin Distal Further away to the trunk or origin Part I Locomotor System Chapter 1 Introduction to Osteology and Arthrology Learning Objectives: 1. Identify the characteristics of long, short, flat, and irregular bones. 2. Comprehend the structure and function of the bones
ExperimentalManualofHumanAnatomy3.Identify the classification of articulations and comprehend both the basic structure andaccessory structure of synovial joints.4.Describe the types of movements at synovial joints and demonstrate themThe locomotor system includes the bones, articulations and skeletal muscles, which not onlyproduces bodymovements but also provides support and protection and site of blood cellformationOur body contains 206 separate bones which are interconnected by articulations.The skeletalmuscles usually areattachedtothebony sites around thearticulations,sowhenthemuscles contractthey work together with the skeleton to produce controlled, precise movements.Section 1 OsteologyL.Classificationof BonesOpen the BONE BOX and observe the separate bones.Bones have various shapes and sizesdepending on their function. The classification of bones by shape are as following:1.Long bones: obtain thefemur, humus and phalanges etc.from theBONE BOX.Longbones arerelatively long and slender and primarily located on limbs. Pick up a long bone cut inlongitudinal section to study the characteristics.(l) Diaphysis (one shaft): in the middleof long bones. It contains a hollow, cylindrical space calledmedullary cavity(2) Epiphyses (two extremities): they are expanded region at each end oflong bones. The smoothsurface on epiphysis is called articular surface which is covered by a hyaline cartilage calledarticular cartilage(3) Metaphysis: the region between the diaphysis and the epiphysis. It contains epiphysealcartilage in a growing bone while in adults the cartilage becomes into a layer of compact bonecalled epiphyseal line2.Shortbones:arecuboidal.Examples includethe carpals (wrist bones)andtarsals (anklebones)Short bones bear weight and provide structural support.9
Experimental Manual of Human Anatomy 9 3. Identify the classification of articulations and comprehend both the basic structure and accessory structure of synovial joints. 4. Describe the types of movements at synovial joints and demonstrate them. The locomotor system includes the bones, articulations and skeletal muscles, which not only produces body movements but also provides support and protection and site of blood cell formation. Our body contains 206 separate bones which are interconnected by articulations. The skeletal muscles usually are attached to the bony sites around the articulations, so when the muscles contract they work together with the skeleton to produce controlled, precise movements. Section 1 Osteology I. Classification of Bones Open the BONE BOX and observe the separate bones. Bones have various shapes and sizes depending on their function. The classification of bones by shape are as following: 1. Long bones: obtain the femur, humus and phalanges etc. from the BONE BOX. Long bones are relatively long and slender and primarily located on limbs. Pick up a long bone cut in longitudinal section to study the characteristics. (1) Diaphysis (one shaft): in the middle of long bones. It contains a hollow, cylindrical space called medullary cavity. (2) Epiphyses (two extremities): they are expanded region at each end of long bones. The smooth surface on epiphysis is called articular surface which is covered by a hyaline cartilage called articular cartilage. (3) Metaphysis: the region between the diaphysis and the epiphysis. It contains epiphyseal cartilage in a growing bone while in adults the cartilage becomes into a layer of compact bone called epiphyseal line. 2. Short bones: are cuboidal. Examples include the carpals(wrist bones) and tarsals (ankle bones). Short bones bear weight and provide structural support
ExperimentalManualofHumanAnatomy3.Flat bones: have flat and thin surfaces. They consist of two compact bone plates separated byspongy bone. Most are located on the axial division and the appendicular girdles. Reference tothe SKELETON shows flat bones form the roof of the skull, the walls of thoracic cavity andpelvic cavity which protect the brain and the viscera. Examples include the skull roof, ribsscapulae etc.4.Irregularbones:havevarious complex shapes withdifferentfunctions.Examples containvertebrae, several bones in the skull, sesamoid bones etc.Sesamoid bones are round or ovalbones that develop in tendons. Pneumatized bones contain numerous air chambers calledsinuses (e.g., maxillary sinuses in maxilla) which lighten the bones and produce resonanceduring sound production.IL.Structureof BonesReference to the Atlas and the long bone cut in longitudinal section shows bones consist ofperiosteum, bony substance and bone marrow.1.Periosteum:except for the articular surfaces, the outer surface of a bone is covered by aperiosteum composed of fibrous connective tissue.2.Bony substance:majorcomponent of a boneformed byosseous tissue.Referencetothevarious bone specimen shows osseous tissue are present in two types: compact bone andspongy bone.Compact bone is solid and relatively dense which forms the external surfaces ofthe bone, whereas spongy bone is located internally and appears more porous, like a spongeBone marrow: located in the medullary cavity and spongy bone.The locations of red bone3.marrow differbetween children and adults.Pay attentionto thedifferencebetweenredmarrowand yellow marrowIl. Chemical Composition and Physical Properties of BonesReference to the decalcified bone (the mineralized matrix of the bone is dissolved away)and thebonewheretheorganic component is removedtostudythechemical composition of theboneBone has both organic and inorganic components in its matrix, About one-third of bone mass is10
Experimental Manual of Human Anatomy 10 3. Flat bones: have flat and thin surfaces. They consist of two compact bone plates separated by spongy bone. Most are located on the axial division and the appendicular girdles. Reference to the SKELETON shows flat bones form the roof of the skull, the walls of thoracic cavity and pelvic cavity which protect the brain and the viscera. Examples include the skull roof, ribs, scapulae etc. 4. Irregular bones: have various complex shapes with different functions. Examples contain vertebrae, several bones in the skull, sesamoid bones etc. Sesamoid bones are round or oval bones that develop in tendons. Pneumatized bones contain numerous air chambers called sinuses (e.g., maxillary sinuses in maxilla) which lighten the bones and produce resonance during sound production. II. Structure of Bones Reference to the Atlas and the long bone cut in longitudinal section shows bones consist of periosteum, bony substance and bone marrow. 1. Periosteum: except for the articular surfaces, the outer surface of a bone is covered by a periosteum composed of fibrous connective tissue. 2. Bony substance: major component of a bone formed by osseous tissue. Reference to the various bone specimen shows osseous tissue are present in two types: compact bone and spongy bone. Compact bone is solid and relatively dense which forms the external surfaces of the bone, whereas spongy bone is located internally and appears more porous, like a sponge. 3. Bone marrow: located in the medullary cavity and spongy bone. The locations of red bone marrow differ between children and adults. Pay attention to the difference between red marrow and yellow marrow. III. Chemical Composition and Physical Properties of Bones Reference to the decalcified bone (the mineralized matrix of the bone is dissolved away) and the bone where the organic component is removed to study the chemical composition of the bone. Bone has both organic and inorganic components in its matrix. About one-third of bone mass is