the General Assembly in 1974 (resolution 3218-XXI In the working paper on: The Emerging Role of the Police and Other Law Enforcement Agencies, with Special Reference to Changing Expectations and Minimum Standards of Performance 3, the Secretariat noted that when corruption occurs in high places, it is a problem for those who are expected to keep order to maintain standards different from those respected by their superiors For this reason, corruption within the police depends largely upon the influence guidance and interest of the total society on the police. Nevertheless, it is still true that a pol force is in a unique position and a police officer cannot be regarded mply as an ordinary citizen in so far as his conduct is concerned. By virtue of his appointment, he is expected to behave in a manner that is at least one level higher than that of most persons. In preparation for the Fifth Congress, the United Nations convened working group of police experts from several regions of the world in January 1975(Warrenton, Virginia, United States of America) to help draft an international code of ethics for the police and related law enforcement agencies. The working group, after reviewing the methods used setting standards for law enforcement officials in various parts of e world and studying a variety of models, prepared a draft international code of police ethics, which was subsequently presented to the Congress as part of the above mentioned working paper prepared by the secretariat. On the basis of the above the Fifth Congress, which is remembered mainly for having offered the Declaration on the Protection of all Persons from Being Sub jected to Torture and other Cruel, inhuman or degrading Treatment or Punishment, discussed the scope and content of the international code of conduct and recommended the General Assembly be requested to establish a committee of experts to study the question of an international code of police ethics and within one year prepare a new document to be considered by the competent organs of the United Nations including the feasibility of regional groups drafting preliminary documents, consisting of representatives who would reflect the cultural and legal sy stem of each region. The General Assembly, by resolution 344 (XXX) of 9 December 1975, requested the Committee on Crime Prevention and Control"to elaborate, on the basis of, inter alia, the proposal presented to and conclusions arrived at by the Fifth United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of offenders, a draft code of conduct for law enforcement officials and to submit this
the General Assembly in 1974 (resolution 3218 - XXIX). In the working paper on: "The Emerging Role of the Police and Other Law Enforcement Agencies, with Special Reference to Changing Expectations and Minimum Standards of Performance"(3), the Secretariat noted that when corruption occurs in high places, it is a problem for those who are expected to keep order to maintain standards different from those respected by their superiors. For this reason, corruption within the police depends largely upon the influence, guidance and interest of the total society on the police. Nevertheless, it is still true that a police force is in a unique position and a police officer cannot be regarded simply as an ordinary citizen in so far as his conduct is concerned. By virtue of his appointment, he is expected to behave in a manner that is at least one level higher than that of most persons. In preparation for the Fifth Congress, the United Nations convened a working group of police experts from several regions of the world in January 1975 (Warrenton, Virginia, United States of America) to help draft an international code of ethics for the police and related law enforcement agencies. The working group, after reviewing the methods used in setting standards for law enforcement officials in various parts of the world and studying a variety of models, prepared a draft international code of police ethics, which was subsequently presented to the Congress, as part of the above mentioned working paper prepared by the Secretariat. On the basis of the above, the Fifth Congress, which is remembered mainly for having offered the Declaration on the Protection of all Persons from Being Subjected to Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, discussed the scope and content of the international code of conduct and recommended the General Assembly be requested to establish a committee of experts to study the question of an international code of police ethics and within one year prepare a new document to be considered by the competent organs of the United Nations, including the feasibility of regional groups drafting preliminary documents, consisting of representatives who would reflect the cultural and legal system of each region. The General Assembly, by resolution 3453 (XXX) of 9 December 1975, requested the Committee on Crime Prevention and Control "to elaborate, on the basis of, inter alia, the proposal presented to and conclusions arrived at by the Fifth United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders, a draft code of conduct for law enforcement officials and to submit this
draft code to the general assembl The Fourth session of the Committee on Crime Prevention and Control(New York, 21 June-2 July 1976)elaborated, on the basis of the proposals presented to and conclusions arrived by the Fifth Congress a draft code of conduct, for submission to the Assembly. Further its consideration the assembly established in 1977 an intersessional working group of the Third Committee to achieve universal consensus on its text In finalizing the working of the code much attention was devoted to the question of police professionalism and accountability. Regarding the problem of corruption among police officials, the code states that Corruption being intolerable in all phases of life, and inasmuch as Governments cannot expect to enforce the law among their citizens if they cannot, or will not, enforce the law against their own agents and agencies, it is incumbent upon law enforcement officials to rigorously oppose and pursue all acts of corruption coming to their attention. At its thirty-fourth session, in 1979, the General Assembly adopted the Code of Conduct for Law Enforcement Officials, by resolution 34/169.The Assembly decided to transmit the Code to Governments with the recommendation that favourable consideration should be given to its use within the framework of national legislation or practice as a body of principles for observance by law enforcement officials While assisting Cot unties in the implementation of the above mentioned code, the United Nations has also devoted substantial energy to develop proposals on practical steps that States can follow in their efforts to devise and implement strategies and reforms In this connection, for example, the Eighth Congress considered a draft resol international co-operation for crime prevention and criminal justice in the context of development to which were annexed a series of recommendations on the sub ject. Recommendation 8 reads as follows: Because the corrupt activities of public officials can destroy the potential effectiveness of all types of governmental programmes, hinder development, and victimize individuals and groups it is of crucial importance that all nations should:(a)review the adequacy of their criminal laws, including procedural legislation, in order to respond to all forms of corruption and related actions designed to assist or to facilitate corrupt activities, and should have recourse to sanctions that 1l ensure an adequate deterrence;(b) devise administrative and regulatory mechanism for the prevention of corrupt practices or the abuse of power: (c) adopt procedures for the detection, investigation and
draft code to the General Assembly". The Fourth session of the Committee on Crime Prevention and Control (New York, 21 June-2 July 1976) elaborated, on the basis of the proposals presented to and conclusions arrived by the Fifth Congress a draft code of conduct, for submission to the Assembly. Further its consideration, the Assembly established in 1977 an intersessional working group of the Third Committee to achieve universal consensus on its text. In finalizing the working of the code, much attention was devoted to the question of police professionalism and accountability. Regarding the problem of corruption among police officials, the code states that: "Corruption being intolerable in all phases of life, and inasmuch as Governments cannot expect to enforce the law among their citizens if they cannot, or will not, enforce the law against their own agents and agencies, it is incumbent upon law enforcement officials to rigorously oppose and pursue all acts of corruption coming to their attention". At its thirty-fourth session, in 1979, the General Assembly adopted the Code of Conduct for Law Enforcement Officials, by resolution 34/169. The Assembly decided to transmit the Code to Governments with the recommendation that favourable consideration should be given to its use within the framework of national legislation or practice as a body of principles for observance by law enforcement officials. While assisting Countries in the implementation of the above mentioned code, the United Nations has also devoted substantial energy to develop proposals on practical steps that States can follow in their efforts to devise and implement strategies and reforms. In this connection, for example, the Eighth Congress considered a draft resolution on international co-operation for crime prevention and criminal justice in the context of development, to which were annexed a series of recommendations on the subject. Recommendation 8 reads as follows: "Because the corrupt activities of public officials can destroy the potential effectiveness of all types of governmental programmes, hinder development, and victimize individuals and groups, it is of crucial importance that all nations should: (a) review the adequacy of their criminal laws, including procedural legislation, in order to respond to all forms of corruption and related actions designed to assist or to facilitate corrupt activities, and should have recourse to sanctions that will ensure an adequate deterrence; (b) devise administrative and regulatory mechanism for the prevention of corrupt practices or the abuse of power; (c) adopt procedures for the detection, investigation and
conviction of corrupt officials; (d)create legal provisions for the forfeiture of funds and property from corrupt practices; and(e)adopt gainst enterprises involved in corruption. The Crime Prevention and criminal justice Branch should co-ordinate the elaboration of materials to assist countries in these efforts, including the development of a manual to combat corruption, and should provide specialized training to judges and prosecutors that would qualify them experience derived from specialized tribunals handling such matters\ o to deal with the technical aspects of corruption, as well as with the Almost one year early, and also as part of the preparation activities for the Eighth Congress, the Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Branch (now Division), in cooperation with the Department of Technical Cooperation for Development (now part of the new Department for Development Support and management Services ed an Interregional Seminar on Corruption in Government hosted by the government of the Netherlands at The hague. The Seminar was attended by high-level officials from 18 developing countries from all the regions and by observers from eight developed countries, non-governmental organizations, academic institutions, independent anti-corruption bodies and ombudsman's offices. A first draft Manual to Combat Corruption prepared for submission to the Eighth Congress, was circulated for comments. The Seminar conducted in-depth discussions on the forms of corruption in government, and its causes, consequences, and relationships with organized crime; and it assessed the existing measures against corruption, as well as appropriate actions to be taken against it at the national, regional and international levels. At the same time the role of international cooperation in the prevention, detection investigation, prosecution and sanctioning of corrupt practices and enforcement in the public management system, was highlighted. The need for better information and expertise, and facilitating technical cooperation and mutual assistance through technical co-operation among developing countries was emphasized. Finally, the possibility of an international convention to deal with transnational corruption and an international code of ethics for public service was also considered. On the basis of the above the Eighth Congress received a new version of the Manual on Practical Measures against Corruption its purpose was to review the most common problems encountered by policy-makers and practitioners in their efforts to deal with corruption. It highlights sible that could be taken and procedures for devising anti-corruption programmes. In suggesti .e course the manual touches on legal issues whose degree of relevance and
conviction of corrupt officials; (d) create legal provisions for the forfeiture of funds and property from corrupt practices; and (e) adopt economic sanctions against enterprises involved in corruption. The Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Branch should co-ordinate the elaboration of materials to assist countries in these efforts, including the development of a manual to combat corruption, and should provide specialized training to judges and prosecutors that would qualify them to deal with the technical aspects of corruption, as well as with the experience derived from specialized tribunals handling such matters"(4) . Almost one year early, and also as part of the preparation activities for the Eighth Congress, the Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Branch (now Division), in cooperation with the Department of Technical Cooperation for Development (now part of the new Department for Development Support and Management Services) organized an Interregional Seminar on Corruption in Government, hosted by the Government of the Netherlands at The Hague(5). The Seminar was attended by high-level officials from 18 developing countries from all the regions and by observers from eight developed countries, non-governmental organizations, academic institutions, independent anti-corruption bodies and ombudsman's offices. A first draft Manual to Combat Corruption, prepared for submission to the Eighth Congress, was circulated for comments. The Seminar conducted in-depth discussions on the forms of corruption in government, and its causes, consequences, and relationships with organized crime; and it assessed the existing measures against corruption, as well as appropriate actions to be taken against it at the national, regional and international levels. At the same time, the role of international cooperation in the prevention, detection, investigation, prosecution and sanctioning of corrupt practices and enforcement in the public management system, was highlighted. The need for better information and expertise, and facilitating technical cooperation and mutual assistance through technical co-operation among developing countries was emphasized. Finally, the possibility of an international convention to deal with transnational corruption and an international code of ethics for public service was also considered. On the basis of the above, the Eighth Congress received a new version of the Manual on Practical Measures against Corruption. Its purpose was to review the most common problems encountered by policy-makers and practitioners in their efforts to deal with corruption. It highlights possible measures that could be taken and procedures for devising anti-corruption programmes. In suggesting possible courses of action, the manual touches on legal issues whose degree of relevance and
difficulty may vary, depending on the legal system of each country. As far as possible, such issues have been taken into account, in order to facilitate the adaptability of the manual to as many contexts as possible After that Congress, the Manual was circulated to experts around WOr and the comments received were incorporated to produce a revised version, which was published as a special issue in the International Review of Criminal Policy. The Eight Congress also adopted resolution 7 on corruption in government" recommending that Member States should devise a variety of dministrative and regulatory mechanism for the prevention of corrupt practices, and inviting them to review the adequacy of their criminal laws, including procedural legislation, to respond to all forms of corruption and to actions designed to assist or facilitate corrupt activities. The Eighth Congress requested the Secretariat to provide technical cooperation assistance to requesting Member States in the fields of strategic planning of anti-corruption programmes, law reforms public administration and management training of public officials and criminal justice personnel, and in tendering international aid projects. The Secretariat was also requested to organize regional and interregional seminars, expert group meetings, workshops and other appropriate activities. These were intended to encourage the exchange of information on anti-corruption techniques, laws and research, and in the examination and promotion of improvements in institutional arrangements and processes. In addition, these activities were also directed towards the improvement of the management of the justice process, through th of databases, to improve decision-making. Finally, the Secretary was requested to develop a draft international code of conduct for public officials, for submission to the Ninth Congress. The issue of corruption received further attention by the General Assembly, which adopted resolution 45/107 of 14 December 1990 on international cooperation for crime prevention and criminal justice in the context of development, as recommended by the eighth Congress. The Assembly reiterated the recommendations of the Eighth Congress regarding the measures that should be adopted by Member States and recommended that the branch coordinate the elaboration of materials to assist countries in their efforts against corruption and to provide specialized training to judges and prosecutors to qualify them to deal with the technical aspects of corruption
difficulty may vary, depending on the legal system of each country. As far as possible, such issues have been taken into account, in order to facilitate the adaptability of the Manual to as many contexts as possible. After that Congress, the Manual was circulated to experts around the world and the comments received were incorporated to produce a revised version, which was published as a special issue in the International Review of Criminal Policy (6) . The Eight Congress also adopted resolution 7 on "corruption in government" recommending that Member States should devise a variety of administrative and regulatory mechanism for the prevention of corrupt practices, and inviting them to review the adequacy of their criminal laws, including procedural legislation, to respond to all forms of corruption and to actions designed to assist or facilitate corrupt activities. The Eighth Congress requested the Secretariat to provide technical cooperation assistance to requesting Member States in the fields of strategic planning of anti-corruption programmes, law reforms, public administration and management, training of public officials and criminal justice personnel, and in tendering international aid projects. The Secretariat was also requested to organize regional and interregional seminars, expert group meetings, workshops and other appropriate activities. These were intended to encourage the exchange of information on anti-corruption techniques, laws and research, and in the examination and promotion of improvements in institutional arrangements and processes. In addition, these activities were also directed towards the improvement of the management of the justice process, through the use of databases, to improve decision-making. Finally, the Secretary was requested to develop a draft international code of conduct for public officials, for submission to the Ninth Congress. The issue of corruption received further attention by the General Assembly, which adopted resolution 45/107 of 14 December 1990 on international cooperation for crime prevention and criminal justice in the context of development, as recommended by the Eighth Congress. The Assembly reiterated the recommendations of the Eighth Congress regarding the measures that should be adopted by Member States and recommended that the Branch coordinate the elaboration of materials to assist countries in their efforts against corruption and to provide specialized training to judges and prosecutors to qualify them to deal with the technical aspects of corruption
One year later, and as a result of the ministerial Summit held in November 1991 and the restructuring of the Crime Programme the Assembly adopted a Statement of Principles and Programme of Action, annexed to its resolution 46/152, in which it decided that the United Nations Crime Prevention and Criminal justice Programme should be desi gned to assist the international community in meeting its pressing needs in the field of crime prevention and criminal justice and to provide countries with timely and practical assistance in dealing with problems of both nationa and lew functional il body was established: the Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal consolidation of the efforts of Member States in preventing ano h and Justice. Among the goals of the programme would be the integratic combatting transnational crime and the promotion of the highest standards of fairness, justice and professional conduct. At its second session the commission on crime prevention and criminal Justice (Vienna April 1993) had before it a number of suggestions regarding possible sub jects of workshops to be organized during the ninth Congress. Corruption was one of those sub jects. On the recommendation of the Commission, the Economic and Social Council decided, by its resolution 1993/ 32 of 27 July 1993 to devote one day of plenary general discussions at the ninth Congress to the issue. In pursuance of resolution 7 of the Eighth Congress, the Secretariat elaborated a draft international code of conduct for public officials, which was discussed by the five regional preparatory meetings for the Ninth Congress and by the Commission at its third session. It also prepared a working paper which helped for approaching the di scussion in plenary, which was introduced by five panellists. The Economic and Social Council, in its resolution 1994/19, section VI, of 25 July 1994, recommended that the Ninth Congress should consider the desirability of a code of conduct for public officials, and that the Secretary-General should seek comments from Member States and relevant entities, in order to assist the Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice in its consideration of the matter at its fourth session As recommended by the Congress, the draft code was itted to the Commission at its fourth session (Vienna, 30 May-9 1995) for its review and comments. The Commission was of the opinion that the draft code, when finalized, could constitute an important tool for the operational activities of the United Nations Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Programme, as well as for States wishing to include
One year later, and as a result of the Ministerial Summit held in November 1991 and the restructuring of the Crime Programme, the Assembly adopted a Statement of Principles and Programme of Action, annexed to its resolution 46/152, in which it decided that the United Nations Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Programme should be designed to assist the international community in meeting its pressing needs in the field of crime prevention and criminal justice and to provide countries with timely and practical assistance in dealing with problems of both national and international crime. For this reason a new functional interregional body was established: the Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice. Among the goals of the programme would be the integration and consolidation of the efforts of Member States in preventing and combatting transnational crime and the promotion of the highest standards of fairness, justice and professional conduct. At its second session, the Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice (Vienna, 13-23 April 1993) had before it a number of suggestions regarding possible subjects of workshops to be organized during the Ninth Congress. Corruption was one of those subjects. On the recommendation of the Commission, the Economic and Social Council decided, by its resolution 1993/32 of 27 July 1993, to devote one day of plenary general discussions at the Ninth Congress to the issue. In pursuance of resolution 7 of the Eighth Congress, the Secretariat elaborated a draft international code of conduct for public officials, which was discussed by the five regional preparatory meetings for the Ninth Congress and by the Commission at its third session. It also prepared a working paper(7) which helped for approaching the discussion in plenary, which was introduced by five panellists(8). The Economic and Social Council, in its resolution 1994/19, section VI, of 25 July 1994, recommended that the Ninth Congress should consider the desirability of a code of conduct for public officials, and that the Secretary-General should seek comments from Member States and relevant entities, in order to assist the Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice in its consideration of the matter at its fourth session. As recommended by the Congress, the draft code was submitted to the Commission at its fourth session (Vienna, 30 May-9 June 1995) for its review and comments. The Commission was of the opinion that the draft code, when finalized, could constitute an important tool for the operational activities of the United Nations Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Programme, as well as for States wishing to include