STRATEGIES FOR INFORMATION MANAGEMENT Gerald Quirchmayr 1. Introduction Managing information systems today comprises the areas of application development, primarily process deling and data modeling, as well as system introduction, training, maintenance, and the task of coping with vation, meaning the responsibility of keeping the technological basis up to date Developing and running specialised systems, general information systems and open and integrated systems leads to dealing with application domain issues, system security, relevant legal problems and envisaging he use of the system The scope of the system and the information provided by it will of course be largely determined by whether it is an internal system, limited access agency system, or an open system, such as the Internet 2. The Scope of Information Management The organisation of the project team and the realistic analysis of the effect on the operational environment and on higher levels are prerequisites for successful system development and system introduction. The efficient organisation of accompanying measures, especially training, (i.e, training of management, user training and system operation and maintenance training)are also necessary components. The maintainability of the system does to a large extent depend on the available documentation. Procedures for trouble shooting, error correction and permanent adaptation, i. e classical system maintenance must also be taken into account. Coping with innovation today means dealing with ever-shorter hardware life cycles, frequent software updates, conceptual changes and even organisational changes. Information systems management must therefore be viewed as a permanently ongoing management activity comprising design, development, implementation and aintenance of computer supported information systems For building models of processes that can serve as basis for computer supported solutions, functions, data and organisational modules serve as basis. A classification of applications is frequently made according to the following principles Disposition systems for short term, well structured planning support: system for deployment planning for law enforcement forces administrative systems: fast calculators, number crunchers, disposition systems for short term, well-structured planning support: system for deployment for law enforcement forces generation of executive information: prison management systems; auditing support systems for dealing with long term strategies issues: strategic systems on senior management level Purely administratively oriented operative information systems are closely connected to the service itself and output-oriented; tactical and strategic information systems are related to bookkeeping, auditing, financial analysis and are value-oriented. The increasing linkage of these two worlds leads to a need for integrated information systems, called vertical integration
STRATEGIES FOR INFORMATION MANAGEMENT Gerald Quirchmayr 1. Introduction Managing information systems today comprises the areas of application development, primarily process modeling and data modeling, as well as system introduction, training, maintenance, and the task of coping with innovation, meaning the responsibility of keeping the technological basis up to date. Developing and running specialised systems, general information systems and open and integrated systems leads to dealing with application domain issues, system security, relevant legal problems and envisaging the use of the system. The scope of the system and the information provided by it will of course be largely determined by whether it is an internal system, limited access agency system, or an open system, such as the Internet. 2. The Scope of Information Management The organisation of the project team and the realistic analysis of the effect on the operational environment and on higher levels are prerequisites for successful system development and system introduction. The efficient organisation of accompanying measures, especially training, (i.e., training of management, user training and system operation and maintenance training) are also necessary components. The maintainability of the system does to a large extent depend on the available documentation. Procedures for trouble shooting, error correction and permanent adaptation, i.e. classical system maintenance must also be taken into account. Coping with innovation today means dealing with ever-shorter hardware life cycles, frequent software updates, conceptual changes and even organisational changes. Information systems management must therefore be viewed as a permanently ongoing management activity comprising design, development, implementation and maintenance of computer supported information systems. For building models of processes that can serve as basis for computer supported solutions, functions, data and organisational modules serve as basis. A classification of applications is frequently made according to the following principles: C Disposition systems for short term, well structured planning support: system for deployment planning for law enforcement forces; C administrative systems: fast calculators, number crunchers; C disposition systems for short term, well-structured planning support: system for deployment for law enforcement forces; C generation of executive information: prison management systems; C auditing support systems for dealing with long term strategies issues: strategic systems on senior management level Purely administratively oriented operative information systems are closely connected to the service itself and output-oriented; tactical and strategic information systems are related to bookkeeping, auditing, financial analysis and are value-oriented. The increasing linkage of these two worlds leads to a need for integrated information systems, called vertical integration
Functional decomposition was predominant in classical information technology, which focused on the d support of services/production, logistics, distribution bookkeeping and auditing. This resulted in functional Integrated information systems follow a process-oriented view of functions and aim at comprehensive vertical, and horizontal integration. A transparent connection between output and value, an integrated database and process or object-oriented design are the main characteristics of this approach Some reasons why traditional information system development can go wrong are based in classic enterprise theory: a strong split in meaningless sub-tasks, strict hierarchical structures and information technology not being viewed as a potential for innovation. Traditional hierarchical structures are too inflexible, integration and control in this approach needs an enormous size middle management. Customers, in the case of public administration citizens, have higher expectations, are characterised by a aggressive behaviour, and expect personalised service and high flexibility. Products and services must be customised to meet the growing demand for personalised service. This revolution, spurred by information technology, leads to new technology, more flexible tools, and office automation replacing human routine work. The most important change, however, is that the environment in which public administration is operating today is increasingly unstable and permanently changing. The consequences are a need for flexible reaction and a high adaptability of processes 3. Essentials of System Development The essential issues system development has to deal with can be grouped as follows planning and preparation for computerization project management; tem implementation 4. Planning and Preparing for Computerisation 4.1 Responsibility for Planning and Decision-making The benefits of computerisation are achieved more through careful and methodical planning than through the purchase of innovative and expensive computer hardware and software. For that reason, it is important that the decision to computerise, the formulation of policy on computerisation, the planning and management of computerisation, and the coordination of computerisation with other organisational changes are all seen as the responsibility of senior management rather than computer specialists or vendors The level of management which is most appropriate will depend on the nature and scale of the computerisation. In a well-ordered approach, management should take an active role in computerisation for the following reasons To decide on the overall approach to computerisation To decide about the scope and nature of computerisation projects To assure the continued researching of the computerisation projects over a number of years in the face of changing and competing priorities and circumstances; To monitor overall progress and ensure timely, successful completion of projects while remaining within the scope of available resources. Often, policy makers wish to leave the responsibility for computerisation to computer professionals. Management must take the responsibility directly, however 4.2 Need for Planning The benefits to be gained from computerisation are significant. In fact, those who currently using
Functional decomposition was predominant in classical information technology, which focused on the isolated support of services/production, logistics, distribution bookkeeping and auditing. This resulted in functional islands. Integrated information systems follow a process-oriented view of functions and aim at comprehensive, vertical, and horizontal integration. A transparent connection between output and value, an integrated database and process or object-oriented design are the main characteristics of this approach. Some reasons why traditional information system development can go wrong are based in classical enterprise theory: a strong split in meaningless sub-tasks, strict hierarchical structures and information technology not being viewed as a potential for innovation. Traditional hierarchical structures are too inflexible; integration and control in this approach needs an enormous size middle management. Customers, in the case of public administration citizens, have higher expectations, are characterised by a more aggressive behaviour, and expect personalised service and high flexibility. Products and services must be customised to meet the growing demand for personalised service. This revolution, spurred by information technology, leads to new technology, more flexible tools, and office automation replacing human routine work. The most important change, however, is that the environment in which public administration is operating today is increasingly unstable and permanently changing. The consequences are a need for flexible reaction and a high adaptability of processes. 3. Essentials of System Development The essential issues system development has to deal with can be grouped as follows: C planning and preparation for computerization; C project management; C system implementation 4. Planning and Preparing for Computerisation 4.1 Responsibility for Planning and Decision-making The benefits of computerisation are achieved more through careful and methodical planning than through the purchase of innovative and expensive computer hardware and software. For that reason, it is important that the decision to computerise, the formulation of policy on computerisation, the planning and management of computerisation, and the coordination of computerisation with other organisational changes are all seen as the responsibility of senior management rather than computer specialists or vendors. The level of management which is most appropriate will depend on the nature and scale of the computerisation. In a well-ordered approach, management should take an active role in computerisation for the following reasons: C To decide on the overall approach to computerisation; C To decide about the scope and nature of computerisation projects; C To assure the continued researching of the computerisation projects over a number of years in the face of changing and competing priorities and circumstances; C To monitor overall progress and ensure timely, successful completion of projects while remaining within the scope of available resources. Often, policy makers wish to leave the responsibility for computerisation to computer professionals. Management must take the responsibility directly, however. 4.2 Need for Planning The benefits to be gained from computerisation are significant. In fact, those who currently using
computer systems to support their work find it difficult or impossible to operate effectively without them. However the benefits are achieved only if the computerisation process is carefully planned, with the full commitment of The need for a clear plan to guide the development of computerisation exists regardless of the size and complexity of the computer systems proposed; often, significant benefits from computerisation can be achieved with relatively modest investments: a small computer in a busy police office, another to assist with court administration in a busy court, and another to collate statistics at the central statistics office, for example. However unless these individual developments are properly planned in the first instance, the individual systems may not achieve the benefits expected of them. Further, unless these are properly coordinated, the information collected at the police office may not be compatible with the court information or with the statistics system. As a result, future plans to make operational improvements by automating the transfer of information between agencies(or even between offices of the same agency) may prove impossible or unnecessarily expensive. Furthermore, systems introduced in this way may not provide the required scope for later expansion, as new and additional functions are required to be computerised. It follows that benefits from computerisation can be achieved only through realistic and methodical planning and not through the purchase of innovative or expensive computer equipment or software. In any case, the purchase of computer systems must follow the planning stages. For that reason, it is important to focus due attention on the planning and preparation for computerisation. It is also the case that the larger the system, the more careful the planning that is required. Also, the more the proposed computer systems are designed to integrate the work of more than one criminal justice agency, the more complex are the issues which require to be incorporated in the planning stages devel On the negative side there are numerous examples to show what can go seriously wrong if the pment of computerisation is not carefully planned The absence of an overall plan to guide the development of individual computer systems often results in piecemeal developments which are incompatible, information which cannot readily be transferred between systems or combined with information held on other systems, and little or no scope for expansion and Inadequate analysis of the requirements for the computer systems, can lead to systems which do not address the real needs of the criminal justice agency, or which do not tackle the underlying objectives of the agency this may also give rise to systems which do not sit comfortably with the methods or constraints of working in the agency, Inadequate attention to the need to involve users in the planning of the computer systems, can lead both to antipathy on the part of those who are intended to use the system, and to systems which fail to address the real needs of users and the manner in which they work, Inadequate analysis of the methods of working of the agency, and of the underlying objectives and options for alternative working, often leads to computer systems which perpetuate manual methods in situations where different methods of working, combined with new computer systems, would produce more efficient or more Inadequate analysis of the costs and benefits of developing and implementing the computer systems can lead to decisions to proceed with systems which are too costly in relation to the benefits they generate; in some cases, this can result in development being abandoned before the system is completed, because of escalating costs and little evidence of benefits being generated; Inadequate analysis of the costs of running and maintaining the computer systems, can lead to systems which are too costly to operate and which can as a result fall into disuse Inadequate attention to the training needs of staff and users at all levels can lead to inefficient or ineffective use of the system and a failure to meet its design objectives: Inadequate attention to the clerical and administrative procedures associated with running the system, can lead
computer systems to support their work find it difficult or impossible to operate effectively without them. However, the benefits are achieved only if the computerisation process is carefully planned, with the full commitment of management. The need for a clear plan to guide the development of computerisation exists regardless of the size and complexity of the computer systems proposed; often, significant benefits from computerisation can be achieved with relatively modest investments: a small computer in a busy police office, another to assist with court administration in a busy court, and another to collate statistics at the central statistics office, for example. However, unless these individual developments are properly planned in the first instance, the individual systems may not achieve the benefits expected of them. Further, unless these are properly coordinated, the information collected at the police office may not be compatible with the court information or with the statistics system. As a result, future plans to make operational improvements by automating the transfer of information between agencies (or even between offices of the same agency) may prove impossible or unnecessarily expensive. Furthermore, systems introduced in this way may not provide the required scope for later expansion, as new and additional functions are required to be computerised. It follows that benefits from computerisation can be achieved only through realistic and methodical planning and not through the purchase of innovative or expensive computer equipment or software. In any case, the purchase of computer systems must follow the planning stages. For that reason, it is important to focus due attention on the planning and preparation for computerisation. It is also the case that the larger the system, the more careful the planning that is required. Also, the more the proposed computer systems are designed to integrate the work of more than one criminal justice agency, the more complex are the issues which require to be incorporated in the planning stages. On the negative side, there are numerous examples to show what can go seriously wrong if the development of computerisation is not carefully planned: C The absence of an overall plan to guide the development of individual computer systems often results in piecemeal developments which are incompatible, information which cannot readily be transferred between systems or combined with information held on other systems, and little or no scope for expansion and development; C Inadequate analysis of the requirements for the computer systems, can lead to systems which do not address the real needs of the criminal justice agency, or which do not tackle the underlying objectives of the agency; this may also give rise to systems which do not sit comfortably with the methods or constraints of working in the agency; C Inadequate attention to the need to involve users in the planning of the computer systems, can lead both to antipathy on the part of those who are intended to use the system, and to systems which fail to address the real needs of users and the manner in which they work; C Inadequate analysis of the methods of working of the agency, and of the underlying objectives and options for alternative working, often leads to computer systems which perpetuate manual methods in situations where different methods of working, combined with new computer systems, would produce more efficient or more effective results; C Inadequate analysis of the costs and benefits of developing and implementing the computer systems can lead to decisions to proceed with systems which are too costly in relation to the benefits they generate; in some cases, this can result in development being abandoned before the system is completed, because of escalating costs and little evidence of benefits being generated; C Inadequate analysis of the costs of running and maintaining the computer systems, can lead to systems which are too costly to operate and which can as a result fall into disuse; C Inadequate attention to the training needs of staff and users at all levels can lead to inefficient or ineffective use of the system and a failure to meet its design objectives; C Inadequate attention to the clerical and administrative procedures associated with running the system, can lead
to incomplete, inaccurate or out-of-date information, which in extreme cases can lead to users losing confidence in the usefulness of the system, and the system falling into disuse Inadequate attention to the security and confidentiality of the information, can in extreme cases lead to compromises of the justice system and to infringements of privacy Inadequate staff preparation for the implementation of the computer system and its associated changes in procedures can lead to staff antipathy, and in extreme cases, refusal to use the system Attempting to develop systems which are too large and complicated to be managed properly, can lead to slipped deadlines, loss of development staff morale and loss of interest on the part of users operly applied, planning of computerisation will mean that any computer systems that are introduced will generate real benefits, at a cost which can be justified, that they will have scope for future expansion and integration, and that the systems will work according to expectation 4.3 Planning for Computerisation Planning for computerisation is similar to that involved in building a new town or estate; work cannot begin on building individual parts until the overall plan has been prepared and agreed. The overall plan determines how big the overall development will be, where the infrastructural components(which, in the town analogy, would be roads, drainage etc, but in computer terms would be the computer processors, communications links, etc ) will be placed and the number and type of individual buildings to be built. The plan usually also sets a time scale, which shows construction plans and a time line. In computing terms, the overall plan is called a strategy, it exa the objectives of the criminal justice system or agency and identifies those aspects of the work which could usefully be computerised. A strategy also sets out the infrastructure necessary to achieve the proposed computerisation the relative sizes of computer systems required, the communications facilities needed, the number of users requiring access and the relative volumes of work to be undertaken by lanning for computerisation consists of a large number of individual stages or components, as in the town building analogy described above. As with building a new development, the first problem is to find a suitable site, and develop an overall plan for the scale and nature of the development--whether to build a residential housing area or an industrial park, for example. In technical terms, this stage is known as defining the strategy establishing a plan which sets out what objectives are to be met, the extent to which computerisation will be applied, and the broad time scale in which the development will take place. Once the strategy is defined, the remainder of the planning process focuses mainly on building and implementing the component parts of the strategy-buying the right computer hardware, developing or buying appropriate computer software, training the At first sight, the list of tasks involved in planning a computer system can be daunting. In reality, by breaking down the overall task into specific components, it can be seen that each individual part is straightforward and manageable. It follows that since the individual stages are manageable, so is the overall task. As a guide to the components involved in planning for computerisation, one can identify the following typical stages as a guide to what is normally included Setting the scope and direction of computerisation Designing and implementing each individual system Ensuring the security, integrity and satisfactory operation of the computerisation project 4.3.1 Stages Associated with Setting the Scope and Direction of Computerisation I. Deciding responsibility for managing the strategy study and for setting the policy on the scale and scope of computerisation, I. Undertaking an analysis of the needs of the organisation(s) and preparing a detailed overall plan for computerisation which tackle the needs
to incomplete, inaccurate or out-of-date information, which in extreme cases can lead to users losing confidence in the usefulness of the system, and the system falling into disuse; C Inadequate attention to the security and confidentiality of the information, can in extreme cases lead to compromises of the justice system and to infringements of privacy; C Inadequate staff preparation for the implementation of the computer system and its associated changes in procedures can lead to staff antipathy, and in extreme cases, refusal to use the system; C Attempting to develop systems which are too large and complicated to be managed properly, can lead to slipped deadlines, loss of development staff morale and loss of interest on the part of users. Properly applied, planning of computerisation will mean that any computer systems that are introduced will generate real benefits, at a cost which can be justified, that they will have scope for future expansion and integration, and that the systems will work according to expectation. 4.3 Planning for Computerisation Planning for computerisation is similar to that involved in building a new town or estate; work cannot begin on building individual parts until the overall plan has been prepared and agreed. The overall plan determines how big the overall development will be, where the infrastructural components (which, in the town analogy, would be roads, drainage etc., but in computer terms would be the computer processors, communications links, etc.) will be placed and the number and type of individual buildings to be built. The plan usually also sets a time scale, which shows construction plans and a time line. In computing terms, the overall plan is called a strategy; it examines the objectives of the criminal justice system or agency and identifies those aspects of the work which could usefully be computerised. A strategy also sets out the infrastructure necessary to achieve the proposed computerisation - the relative sizes of computer systems required, the communications facilities needed, the number of users requiring access and the relative volumes of work to be undertaken by each. Planning for computerisation consists of a large number of individual stages or components, as in the town building analogy described above. As with building a new development, the first problem is to find a suitable site, and develop an overall plan for the scale and nature of the development--whether to build a residential housing area or an industrial park, for example. In technical terms, this stage is known as defining the strategy-- establishing a plan which sets out what objectives are to be met, the extent to which computerisation will be applied, and the broad time scale in which the development will take place. Once the strategy is defined, the remainder of the planning process focuses mainly on building and implementing the component parts of the strategy - buying the right computer hardware, developing or buying appropriate computer software, training the users how to use the system, etc. At first sight, the list of tasks involved in planning a computer system can be daunting. In reality, by breaking down the overall task into specific components, it can be seen that each individual part is straightforward and manageable. It follows that since the individual stages are manageable, so is the overall task. As a guide to the components involved in planning for computerisation, one can identify the following typical stages as a guide to what is normally included: C Setting the scope and direction of computerisation; C Designing and implementing each individual system; C Ensuring the security, integrity and satisfactory operation of the computerisation project. 4.3.1 Stages Associated with Setting the Scope and Direction of Computerisation I. Deciding responsibility for managing the strategy study and for setting the policy on the scale and scope of computerisation; I. Undertaking an analysis of the needs of the organisation(s) and preparing a detailed overall plan for computerisation which tackle the needs;
I. Within the overall plan, deciding what to computerise, and how to tackle each project, Deciding priorities between competing systems for development or implementation 4.3.2 Within the overall plan stages involved in designing and implementing each individual system I. Setting up a project management structure, to take responsibility for ensuring that the proposed computerisation project is completed on time, within budget, and achieves the objectives set for it, and to provide a mechanism for users to influence and guide the development of the computerisation I. Involving the users in developing the plans for computerisation L. Confirming the feasibility of the project; I. Analysing the requirements, to find out precisely what the computer system has to do, what information it requires to hold and what screen and report layouts are required I. Setting data standards, I. Breaking down the project into manageable stages, and analysing for each stage the time required to complete it and the resources needed for it; I. Deciding how best to implement the proposed system- whether to utilise an existing system from another agency, for example, or to develop a new system from scratch, I. Deciding what computer hardware (if any) needs to purchased, and planning and implementing the procurement procedures as necessary Developing the system, where necessary, or modifying an existing system to meet the specific needs of the organisation Piloting the system as necessary to check that it works satisfactorily and to enab ble users to familiarise hemselves with the system and to refine their requirements I. Testing the system, both to ensure that it w orrectly under all test conditions and that the users satisfy themselves that it operates correctly under operational conditions I. Implementing the system, by installing it on the computer hardware, planning the changeover from manual to automated working, and ensuring that the automated system works reliably enough to replace the manual methods Training the users in the use of the system I. Preparing and issuing documentation to assist users in the use of the system, as well as to provide technical guidance to the computer staff who will maintain and support the system, and training materials to the staff who will train users in its use I. Planning and implementing the transfer of data from existing manual (or automated )records to the new ystem I. Evaluating the extent to which the completed system meets its design objectives, and subsequently monitoring its continued achievement of them 4.3.3 Stages Involved in Ensuring the Security, Integrity and Satisfactory Operation of the Computerisation L. Preparing procedures for checking information quality, and for ensuring that quality standards are held within pre-defined limits Planning for the physical security of the computer system and the information held on it;
I. Within the overall plan, deciding what to computerise, and how to tackle each project; I. Deciding priorities between competing systems for development or implementation; 4.3.2 Within the overall plan stages involved in designing and implementing each individual system I. Setting up a project management structure, to take responsibility for ensuring that the proposed computerisation project is completed on time, within budget, and achieves the objectives set for it, and to provide a mechanism for users to influence and guide the development of the computerisation; I. Involving the users in developing the plans for computerisation; I. Confirming the feasibility of the project; I. Analysing the requirements, to find out precisely what the computer system has to do, what information it requires to hold, and what screen and report layouts are required; I. Setting data standards; I. Breaking down the project into manageable stages, and analysing for each stage the time required to complete it and the resources needed for it; I. Deciding how best to implement the proposed system - whether to utilise an existing system from another agency, for example, or to develop a new system from scratch; I. Deciding what computer hardware (if any) needs to purchased, and planning and implementing the procurement procedures as necessary; I. Developing the system, where necessary, or modifying an existing system to meet the specific needs of the organisation; I. Piloting the system as necessary to check that it works satisfactorily and to enable users to familiarise themselves with the system and to refine their requirements; I. Testing the system, both to ensure that it works correctly under all test conditions and that the users satisfy themselves that it operates correctly under normal operational conditions; I. Implementing the system, by installing it on the computer hardware, planning the changeover from manual to automated working, and ensuring that the automated system works reliably enough to replace the manual methods; I. Training the users in the use of the system; I. Preparing and issuing documentation to assist users in the use of the system, as well as to provide technical guidance to the computer staff who will maintain and support the system, and training materials to the staff who will train users in its use; I. Planning and implementing the transfer of data from existing manual (or automated) records to the new system; I. Evaluating the extent to which the completed system meets its design objectives, and subsequently monitoring its continued achievement of them. 4.3.3 Stages Involved in Ensuring the Security, Integrity and Satisfactory Operation of the Computerisation Project I. Preparing procedures for checking information quality, and for ensuring that quality standards are held within pre-defined limits; I. Planning for the physical security of the computer system and the information held on it;