Online Game Addiction among Adolescents: Motivation and prevention Factors Online Game Addiction among Adolescents: Motivation and Prevention Factors ABSTRACT ndividuals and societies. In this study we rely on the functionalist perspective ofh behavior and propose and test a balanced model of the antecedents of online game addiction among adolescents, which simultaneously focuses on moti revention and harm reduction forces. First, a pilot survey of 163 adolescents was used for validating and refining a instrument. Second, formal survey data c from 623 adolescents were analyzed with Partial Least Squares techniques. The findings point to several functional needs (eg-, need for relationship and need for drive online game playing and addiction, as well as to several prevention and harm reduction factors(e.g, education, attention switching activities)that reduce game nd alleviate online game addiction. The effects of motivation and prevention factors on online game addiction are partially mediated by online game playing. Implic d practice are discussed Keywords: Addiction, technology addiction, computer games, motivation, prevention, harm reduction. INTRODUCTION The driving forces behind individuals'informed decisions to keep on using information technologies(IT) have been widely studied in the MIS literature(Bhatta al., 2008; Kim, 2009). The basic assumptions of such studies were that information systems are beneficial in terms of hedonic or utilitarian gains, and that people are decision makers. However, information systems are not always beneficial, and users may develop distorted rationales(turel et al, Forthcoming). When being used in lay also have negative impact on individuals as well as on the society(Block, 2008). One such potential negative outcome is technology addictio Building on the definition of drug addiction( Robinson Berridge, 2003), technology addiction is defined as a users psychological state of dependency on the I manifested through the compulsive pattern of IT-seeking and IT-use behaviors that take place at the expense of other important activities. This phenomenon has bee in numerous IT contexts, including, for example, online video games( Charlton Danforth, 2007), mobile email (turel Serenko, 2010), and online gambling(Mch erevensky, 2009). It is imperative to study these addictions because they can negatively influence many facets of life, including personal, school, social, financial, ar relationship aspects(Billieux et al., 2008; Caplan, 2002; Turel Serenko, 2010) One of the prominent and worrisome technology related addictions is online game addiction( Charlton Danforth, 2010; Huh Bowman, 2008). Building on c definition of general technology addictions, online game addiction is defined as a state of dependency on online games which is manifested through the compulsive p eking and use behaviors that take place at the expense of other important activities. Online video games have become a popular form of electronic entertainment, es among children and adolescents( Choi Kim, 2004; Griffiths et al., 2003; Griffiths et al., 2004). While not all online games are addictive or harmful, some games, EverQuest", and the"Dark Age of Camelot", and many massively multiplayer online games can be addiction- prone due to their interactive and collaborative/compet Barnett Coulson, 2010; Liu& Peng, 2009). These features give such games a social aspect which may be missing from offline activities, and make it difficult to st (Young, 2010b). As such, excessive use of online video games and addiction to them have become common, and may result in many negative psychological and phys damages, including social isolation, suicide, lack of sleep, hypertension, and death(Bruner Bruner, 2006). These phenomena may be more prevalent among adoles group which tends to engage in more risk behaviors than adults(Nelson et al., 1997; Quadrel et al, 1993), including in the context of video games(Anderson et al., 2 In this study we therefore focus on online game addiction, and try to explain its formation among adolescents. By understanding the antecedents of this psycholo better prevention and intervention techniques can be developed. This also represents a gap in the literature that we intend to fill. Specifically, much research so far has devoted to the drivers of online game playing( Choi& Kim, 2004; Yee, 2006), but these antecedents may have different roles in forming addictions. Other studies dea efinition and measurement of online game addiction(e.g, Byun et al, 2009, Charlton& Danforth, 2007), but only a limited set of potential correlates with online ga diction have been identified(e. g, Charlton Danforth, 2010; Huh& Bowman, 2008) To advance our understanding of the formation of online game addiction among adolescents, a model explicating the links between two families of predictors an phenomenon is proposed. We take the functionalist approach(Katz, 1960, Smith et al., 1956), and build on research on game playing motivations(Yee, 2006), in chor nore holistic view of the phenomenon we study. After all, game players are often exposed simultaneously to both types of factors(e. g, a social need that drives them mbined with parental monitoring that inhibits playing)
Online Game Addiction among Adolescents: Motivation and Prevention Factors Online Game Addiction among Adolescents: Motivation and Prevention Factors ABSTRACT Online game addiction has become a common phenomenon that affects many individuals and societies. In this study we rely on the functionalist perspective of h behavior and propose and test a balanced model of the antecedents of online game addiction among adolescents, which simultaneously focuses on motivating forces, prevention and harm reduction forces. First, a pilot survey of 163 adolescents was used for validating and refining a survey instrument. Second, formal survey data c from 623 adolescents were analyzed with Partial Least Squares techniques. The findings point to several functional needs (e.g., need for relationship and need for esc drive online game playing and addiction, as well as to several prevention and harm reduction factors (e.g., education, attention switching activities) that reduce game and alleviate online game addiction. The effects of motivation and prevention factors on online game addiction are partially mediated by online game playing. Implic research and practice are discussed. Keywords : Addiction, technology addiction, computer games, motivation, prevention, harm reduction. INTRODUCTION The driving forces behind individuals’ informed decisions to keep on using information technologies (IT) have been widely studied in the MIS literature (Bhatta al., 2008; Kim, 2009). The basic assumptions of such studies were that information systems are beneficial in terms of hedonic or utilitarian gains, and that people are decision makers. However, information systems are not always beneficial, and users may develop distorted rationales (Turel et al., Forthcoming). When being used im may also have negative impact on individuals as well as on the society (Block, 2008). One such potential negative outcome is technology addiction. Building on the definition of drug addiction (Robinson & Berridge, 2003), technology addiction is defined as a user’s psychological state of dependency on the I is manifested through the compulsive pattern of IT-seeking and IT-use behaviors that take place at the expense of other important activities. This phenomenon has bee in numerous IT contexts, including, for example, online video games (Charlton & Danforth, 2007), mobile email (Turel & Serenko, 2010), and online gambling (McB Derevensky, 2009). It is imperative to study these addictions because they can negatively influence many facets of life, including personal, school, social, financial, an relationship aspects (Billieux et al., 2008; Caplan, 2002; Turel & Serenko, 2010). One of the prominent and worrisome technology related addictions is online game addiction (Charlton & Danforth, 2010; Huh & Bowman, 2008). Building on o definition of general technology addictions, online game addiction is defined as a state of dependency on online games which is manifested through the compulsive p seeking and use behaviors that take place at the expense of other important activities. Online video games have become a popular form of electronic entertainment, es among children and adolescents (Choi & Kim, 2004; Griffiths et al., 2003; Griffiths et al., 2004). While not all online games are addictive or harmful, some games, su “EverQuest”, and the “Dark Age of Camelot”, and many massively multiplayer online games can be addiction-prone due to their interactive and collaborative/compet (Barnett & Coulson, 2010; Liu & Peng, 2009). These features give such games a social aspect which may be missing from offline activities, and make it difficult to st (Young, 2010b). As such, excessive use of online video games and addiction to them have become common, and may result in many negative psychological and phys damages, including social isolation, suicide, lack of sleep, hypertension, and death (Bruner & Bruner, 2006). These phenomena may be more prevalent among adolesc group which tends to engage in more risk behaviors than adults (Nelson et al., 1997; Quadrel et al., 1993), including in the context of video games (Anderson et al., 2 In this study we therefore focus on online game addiction, and try to explain its formation among adolescents. By understanding the antecedents of this psycholo better prevention and intervention techniques can be developed. This also represents a gap in the literature that we intend to fill. Specifically, much research so far has devoted to the drivers of online game playing (Choi & Kim, 2004; Yee, 2006), but these antecedents may have different roles in forming addictions. Other studies dea definition and measurement of online game addiction (e.g., Byun et al., 2009; Charlton & Danforth, 2007), but only a limited set of potential correlates with online ga addiction have been identified (e.g., Charlton & Danforth, 2010; Huh & Bowman, 2008). To advance our understanding of the formation of online game addiction among adolescents, a model explicating the links between two families of predictors an phenomenon is proposed. We take the functionalist approach (Katz, 1960; Smith et al., 1956), and build on research on game playing motivations (Yee, 2006), in chor research on problematic behavior prevention (Dickson et al., 2002; van Hamel et al., 2007). The joint focus on motivating and preventing factors is advantageous as i more holistic view of the phenomenon we study. After all, game players are often exposed simultaneously to both types of factors (e.g., a social need that drives them combined with parental monitoring that inhibits playing)
that online nline games, key functional motives may include the advancement, need to master the mechanics of games, need for relationship, and need for escapism (Y While these are intemally formulated motivations, the prevention factors among adolescents are often external to the person and fall into ones environment. These parental monitoring, education, the cost of conducting the activity(playing online games), resources shortage, and alternative, attention switching, activities(Dickson 2002) To test our model, two surveys were conducted. First, data from a sample of 163 Chinese adolescents were utilized for developing the measurement instruments not found in the literature. Second, using the developed measurement scales, data from a sample of 623 Chinese adolescents were collected and subjected to Partial L (PLS)analysis. The results point to several motivation and prevention factors that explain variation in game playing and addiction, and also show that some preventio ay not have merit. functionalist approach. The Hypotheses section presents the development of our research model. The Methods section describes the approaches taken for survey 3 The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. The Theoretical Background section reviews the literature operationalization and data collection. The Analysis and Results section provides information on, and the results of the analyses performed. In the Discussion section summarize the results, outline implications for research and practice, and acknowledge limitations that point to future research directions, Concluding remarks are pi the Conclusion section Online Game Addiction Game addiction is one type of Internet addiction that encapsulates the dependency on a specific family of f artifacts-online games. To capture it, many research dopted the criteria of Internet addiction(Young, 1998b; Young, 2010a)or a broader set for diagnosing problematic non-substance related compulsions, i.e., behavior (Brown, 1997). These works largely build on a closely related disorder- problem pathological gambling, which is described in DSM-IV(Diagnostic and Statistics M ental Disorders- Fourth Edition; American Psychiatric Association, 1994). Because no official cutoff points to classify a person as addicted exist(Block, 2008),m search on this topic so far has treated online game and other technology addictions as continuous concepts -ranging from low to high levels of addiction Ferraro et al., 2007, Hur, 2006), and hence assumed that all users may have a certain level of addiction, though low for most users(Turel et al. Forthcomi perspective in this stud ike other behavioral addictions, online game addiction can be manifested through six core symptoms described by Brown(1997). These include conflict (i.e, pl games meaningfully conflicts with other important tasks), withdrawal (ie, negative emotions arise if one cannot play online games), relapse and reinstatement (i.e, i voluntarily reduce the time spent on online games), and behavioral salience (i. e, playing online games dominates ones life and takes over other tasks). Other less sev symptoms are indicative of high engagement, and serve as a precondition for the more severe addiction symptoms( Charlton Danforth, 2007; Charlton Danforth include tolerance(need to increase the time spent on online games ), euphoria(a buzz of excitement from playing online games), and cognitive salience(frequently th online games) How is online game addiction formed? While not all reasons are clear, evidence so far suggests that it has to do with at least two families of factors: Internal psyc factors and socio-environmental factors(Shi, 2008), as well as potentially with neurobehavioral deficiencies(Ko et al., 2009a). For example, social-behaviorally inac ersonality traits, such as shyness, dependence, depression, aggression, low self-esteem, low self-control, and narcissism, may predispose some individuals to play ex nd become addicted to online games(Ho Lee, 2001; Kim et al., 2008; Yang Tung, 2007, Dominick, 1984). Socio-environmental factors can include one's work (e.g, working night shifts), socio economic status(Hur, 2006), and demographics(e.g, age and gender)(Ko et al., 2005). Game design is another external factor that fluence online game addiction. Role playing games, action games, adventure games, strategy games, fighting games, and shooting games are more addictive than ot 2008)plausibly due to their interactive, collaborative and competitive nature( Barnett Coulson, 2010, Liu& Peng, 2009)which serves social needs of individuals t hissing in their real lives( Young, 2010b) While focusing on such variables is important and fruitful, the functionalist perspective which we take in this study suggests that these factors inform a set of funct motives, which in turn, influence behavioral outcomes( Clary et al., 1998; Mowen, 2000; Mowen et al., 2007). Thus, one's functional motives are different from traits hore proximal determinants of his or her program of behavior(Mowen Sujan, 2005). Accordingly, in this study we focus on functional motives and inhibitors The Functional Approach for Online Game Playing Most if not all activities humans perform are driven by purposeful striving toward social and personal goals( Snyder, 1993)such as to increase ones social status become healthy. People's actions hence cater to various functional needs( Clary et al., 1998). These needs often evolve around key themes, such as serving knowle oneself), and utilitarian functions(need for obtaining rewards and avoiding punishment)(Katz, 1960). This perspective has been utilized and validated in numerous st Cooper et al., 1998: De Cremer Tyler, 2005; Rioux Penner, 2001)
Specifically, in line with functionalist approach of motivation we argue that online gamers follow a program of behavior to serve their functional motives. In the online games, key functional motives may include the need for advancement, need to master the mechanics of games, need for relationship, and need for escapism (Y While these are internally formulated motivations, the prevention factors among adolescents are often external to the person and fall into one’s environment. These ca parental monitoring, education, the cost of conducting the activity (playing online games), resources shortage, and alternative, attention switching, activities (Dickson 2002). To test our model, two surveys were conducted. First, data from a sample of 163 Chinese adolescents were utilized for developing the measurement instruments not found in the literature. Second, using the developed measurement scales, data from a sample of 623 Chinese adolescents were collected and subjected to Partial L (PLS) analysis. The results point to several motivation and prevention factors that explain variation in game playing and addiction, and also show that some preventio may not have merit. The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. The Theoretical Background section reviews the literature on online game addiction, some of its antecedents functionalist approach. The Hypotheses section presents the development of our research model. The Methods section describes the approaches taken for survey operationalization and data collection. The Analysis and Results section provides information on, and the results of the analyses performed. In the Discussion section summarize the results, outline implications for research and practice, and acknowledge limitations that point to future research directions. Concluding remarks are pr the Conclusion section. Theoretical background Online Game Addiction Game addiction is one type of Internet addiction that encapsulates the dependency on a specific family of IT artifacts – online games. To capture it, many research adopted the criteria of Internet addiction (Young, 1998b; Young, 2010a) or a broader set for diagnosing problematic non-substance related compulsions, i.e., behavior (Brown, 1997). These works largely build on a closely related disorder – problem pathological gambling, which is described in DSM-IV (Diagnostic and Statistics M Mental Disorders - Fourth Edition; American Psychiatric Association, 1994). Because no official cutoff points to classify a person as addicted exist (Block, 2008), m research on this topic so far has treated online game and other technology addictions as continuous concepts – ranging from low to high levels of addiction (Byun et a Ferraro et al., 2007; Hur, 2006), and hence assumed that all users may have a certain level of addiction, though low for most users (Turel et al., Forthcoming). We ado perspective in this study. Like other behavioral addictions, online game addiction can be manifested through six core symptoms described by Brown (1997). These include conflict (i.e., pla games meaningfully conflicts with other important tasks), withdrawal (i.e., negative emotions arise if one cannot play online games), relapse and reinstatement (i.e., i voluntarily reduce the time spent on online games), and behavioral salience (i.e., playing online games dominates one’s life and takes over other tasks). Other less sev symptoms are indicative of high engagement, and serve as a precondition for the more severe addiction symptoms (Charlton & Danforth, 2007; Charlton & Danforth, include tolerance (need to increase the time spent on online games), euphoria (a buzz of excitement from playing online games), and cognitive salience (frequently th online games). How is online game addiction formed? While not all reasons are clear, evidence so far suggests that it has to do with at least two families of factors: Internal psyc factors and socio-environmental factors (Shi, 2008), as well as potentially with neurobehavioral deficiencies (Ko et al., 2009a). For example, social-behaviorally inac personality traits, such as shyness, dependence, depression, aggression, low self-esteem, low self-control, and narcissism, may predispose some individuals to play ex and become addicted to online games (Ho & Lee, 2001; Kim et al., 2008; Yang & Tung, 2007; Dominick, 1984). Socio-environmental factors can include one’s work (e.g., working night shifts), socio economic status (Hur, 2006), and demographics (e.g., age and gender) (Ko et al., 2005). Game design is another external factor that influence online game addiction. Role playing games, action games, adventure games, strategy games, fighting games, and shooting games are more addictive than ot 2008) plausibly due to their interactive, collaborative and competitive nature (Barnett & Coulson, 2010; Liu & Peng, 2009) which serves social needs of individuals th missing in their real lives (Young, 2010b) While focusing on such variables is important and fruitful, the functionalist perspective which we take in this study suggests that these factors inform a set of funct motives, which in turn, influence behavioral outcomes (Clary et al., 1998; Mowen, 2000; Mowen et al., 2007). Thus, one’s functional motives are different from traits more proximal determinants of his or her program of behavior (Mowen & Sujan, 2005). Accordingly, in this study we focus on functional motives and inhibitors. The Functional Approach for Online Game Playing Most if not all activities humans perform are driven by purposeful striving toward social and personal goals (Snyder, 1993) such as to increase one’s social status, or become healthy. People’s actions hence cater to various functional needs (Clary et al., 1998). These needs often evolve around key themes, such as serving knowle (better understanding a concept or object), value expressive function (need to express one’s values), ego-defense needs (need to protect a person from threatening trut oneself), and utilitarian functions (need for obtaining rewards and avoiding punishment) (Katz, 1960). This perspective has been utilized and validated in numerous st (Cooper et al., 1998; De Cremer & Tyler, 2005; Rioux & Penner, 2001)
Given the broad range of needs that this perspective covers in the abovementioned themes, it is fair to ask what the more specific needs human behaviors serve are many elemental needs that are being served by human behaviors(food, sleep, etc )and other sometimes less prominent psychological and physiological needs(Brugh Dietch, 1978; Watson, 1996)that mostly fall into Maslow's hierarchy of needs(Maslow, 1943). But, each behavior serves different needs( Clary et al., 1998; Mowen, Mowen Sujan, 2005). For example, we may conduct research to gain utilitarian benefits(e.g, merit based salary increase), to increase knowledge, and to express b pic. Other activities, such as writing software code, may be motivated by other needs, say only utilitarian needs. Thus, it is imperative to focus on the specific functi by online game playing, which is the phenomenon of interest in this study, to understand people's decision to play online games everal studies have addressed this issue. It has been suggested that the motivation to play online games stems from three types of needs: sense of achievement, so visibility, and feeling of immersion(Wan& Chiou, 2006). Other studies further decompose these needs. The sense of achievement includes need to advance in game master the mechanics of game( to be an expert, and need to challenge others(Yee, 2006). All these factors relate to a broader need for sense of control that drives pe online games( Chou& Tsai, 2007). The social visibility need includes both social and emotional needs, and the need to develop ones social skills; and the immersion encapsulates a desire to become virtually a part of the experience itself in the game(Yee, 2006), 1.e, to experience the fascination of a temporary escape into another Castell Jenson, 2007) Note that the functionalist perspective assumes calculated decision making. It is reasonable to expect game players in general to apply rational decision making I umans want to maximize their subjective utility, and game players are not different Even in cases of addiction, where strong psychological dependency develops, ga by turel et al. (Forthcoming). It means that addicted individuals will sti best serves their functional needs. Their belief system may be distorted, but they will employ calculated considerations to make informed decisions regarding online playing Online Game Addiction Prevention and Harm Reduction Motivating game playing through the functional needs lens is one side of the coin. The other side in many problematic programs of behavior situations (e.g set of extemal inhibitors that operate to prevent and later reduce the harm of ones program of behavior(Benowitz, 2008: Hatsukami et al., 2004; Marlatt, 1996).We elements in our model as well. Note that the term prevention refers to a-priori acts (i.e, before a person engages in a harmful pattern of behavior and develops addict arm reduction refers to acts that take place throughout, and potentially after, the execution of the potentially problematic program of behavior. Because there are no medical or academic criteria for determining when the problematic program of behavior begins and when addiction develops(Block, 2008; Turel Serenko, 20 distinguish between prevention and harm reduction strategies, and treat them interchangeably. For er lucational efforts to teach adolescents about the risks of playing can take place before someone starts playing games, throughout the development of a game though little research has been conducted on Internet addiction and specifically online game addiction prevention, there has been substantial research on the pr ubstance abuse and problematic pathological behaviors, such as gambling(Dickson et al, 2002, Stockwell et al., 1996). We argue that it is reasonable to draw on the work because there are many similarities between technology addictions and alcohol or gambling addictions(Young, 1998b ). In fact, they even share similar neurobe ays(Ko et al., 2009a)and symptoms( Charlton Danforth, 2007). Building on typical gambling prevention and harm-reduction tactics, we argue that four key ay be relevant in the context of online game playing. These include education to mold and/or correct one's belief system(e.g, talking with a child regarding the risk excessive online game playing), behavioral interventions(e.g, keeping a person busy with other activities such as sports), resource restrictions(e.g, limiting ones or time), and social environment improvement(e.g, providing parental support)( Flay Petraitis, 1991; Hwang et al., 2004; Stice et al., 2006: Wiehe et al, 2005). We c detail in the hypotheses section The influences of motivating factors on online game addictio Tyler, 2005; Rioux Penner, 2001), and focusing on the needs that a program of behavio game playing fulfils (Yee, 2006), we argue that the stronger these needs, the higher ones game playing time will be. The needs represent a gap between ones current physical and psychological well being and social status, to his or her desired state. A calculated program of behavior is presumed to be able to help a person reach the lary et al., 1998). Yee(2006) provided the Player Motivation Factors Model, which describes three groups of game-playing functional needs(i.e, motivating factors) similar to the hievement, social visibil ity, and immersion motivation described by Wan and Chiou(2006): need for achievement, need for socialization, and need for immersion these needs includes several sub-dimensions, or more specific needs. For example, the need for achievement can be expressed through a need to advance in a game. E research(Lu& Wang, 2008, Seay Kraut, 2007: Yee, 2006)we propose that the needs for advancement and mastering the mechanics(sub dimensions of a broader lievement), need for relationship(a sub dimension of a broader need for social visibility), and need for escapism(a sub dimension of immersion motivation)are im otivation factors that may have positive effects not only on game playing, but also on the formation of technology addiction. These factors represent all the facets de Yee(2006)and by Wan and Chiou(2006). Their definitions are listed in Table I Table 1. Key Functional Needs
Given the broad range of needs that this perspective covers in the abovementioned themes, it is fair to ask what the more specific needs human behaviors serve are many elemental needs that are being served by human behaviors (food, sleep, etc.) and other sometimes less prominent psychological and physiological needs (Brugh Dietch, 1978; Watson, 1996) that mostly fall into Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1943). But, each behavior serves different needs (Clary et al., 1998; Mowen, Mowen & Sujan, 2005). For example, we may conduct research to gain utilitarian benefits (e.g., merit based salary increase), to increase knowledge, and to express b topic. Other activities, such as writing software code, may be motivated by other needs, say only utilitarian needs. Thus, it is imperative to focus on the specific functi by online game playing, which is the phenomenon of interest in this study, to understand people’s decision to play online games. Several studies have addressed this issue. It has been suggested that the motivation to play online games stems from three types of needs: sense of achievement, so visibility, and feeling of immersion (Wan & Chiou, 2006). Other studies further decompose these needs. The sense of achievement includes need to advance in game master the mechanics of game (to be an expert), and need to challenge others (Yee, 2006). All these factors relate to a broader need for sense of control that drives peo online games (Chou & Tsai, 2007). The social visibility need includes both social and emotional needs, and the need to develop one’s social skills; and the immersion encapsulates a desire to become virtually a part of the experience itself in the game (Yee, 2006), i.e., to experience the fascination of a temporary escape into another w Castell & Jenson, 2007). Note that the functionalist perspective assumes calculated decision making. It is reasonable to expect game players in general to apply rational decision making pro humans want to maximize their subjective utility, and game players are not different. Even in cases of addiction, where strong psychological dependency develops, ga can follow the distorted-rationality processes described by Turel et al. (Forthcoming). It means that addicted individuals will still follow a program of behavior that in best serves their functional needs. Their belief system may be distorted, but they will employ calculated considerations to make informed decisions regarding online g playing. Online Game Addiction Prevention and Harm Reduction Motivating game playing through the functional needs lens is one side of the coin. The other side in many problematic programs of behavior situations (e.g., sm set of external inhibitors that operate to prevent and later reduce the harm of one’s program of behavior (Benowitz, 2008; Hatsukami et al., 2004; Marlatt, 1996). We i elements in our model as well. Note that the term prevention refers to a-priori acts (i.e., before a person engages in a harmful pattern of behavior and develops addicti harm reduction refers to acts that take place throughout, and potentially after, the execution of the potentially problematic program of behavior. Because there are no a medical or academic criteria for determining when the problematic program of behavior begins and when addiction develops (Block, 2008; Turel & Serenko, 2010), w distinguish between prevention and harm reduction strategies, and treat them interchangeably. For example educational efforts to teach adolescents about the risks of playing can take place before someone starts playing games, throughout the development of a game playing pattern, and after a person has presented strong addiction Although little research has been conducted on Internet addiction and specifically online game addiction prevention, there has been substantial research on the pr substance abuse and problematic pathological behaviors, such as gambling (Dickson et al., 2002; Stockwell et al., 1996). We argue that it is reasonable to draw on the work because there are many similarities between technology addictions and alcohol or gambling addictions (Young, 1998b). In fact, they even share similar neurobe pathways (Ko et al., 2009a) and symptoms (Charlton & Danforth, 2007). Building on typical gambling prevention and harm-reduction tactics, we argue that four key may be relevant in the context of online game playing. These include education to mold and/or correct one’s belief system (e.g., talking with a child regarding the risk excessive online game playing), behavioral interventions (e.g., keeping a person busy with other activities such as sports), resource restrictions (e.g., limiting one’s on time), and social environment improvement (e.g., providing parental support) (Flay & Petraitis, 1991; Hwang et al., 2004; Stice et al., 2006; Wiehe et al., 2005). We d in detail in the hypotheses section. hypotheses The influences of motivating factors on online game addiction Taking the functionalist perspective (Cooper et al., 1998; De Cremer & Tyler, 2005; Rioux & Penner, 2001), and focusing on the needs that a program of behavio game playing fulfils (Yee, 2006), we argue that the stronger these needs, the higher one’s game playing time will be. The needs represent a gap between one’s current physical and psychological well being and social status, to his or her desired state. A calculated program of behavior is presumed to be able to help a person reach the objectives and bridge the gaps (Clary et al., 1998). Yee (2006) provided the Player Motivation Factors Model, which describes three groups of game-playing functional needs (i.e., motivating factors) similar to the achievement, social visibility, and immersion motivation described by Wan and Chiou (2006): need for achievement, need for socialization, and need for immersion. E these needs includes several sub-dimensions, or more specific needs. For example, the need for achievement can be expressed through a need to advance in a game. B research (Lu & Wang, 2008; Seay & Kraut, 2007; Yee, 2006) we propose that the needs for advancement and mastering the mechanics (sub dimensions of a broader n achievement), need for relationship (a sub dimension of a broader need for social visibility), and need for escapism (a sub dimension of immersion motivation) are im motivation factors that may have positive effects not only on game playing, but also on the formation of technology addiction. These factors represent all the facets de Yee (2006) and by Wan and Chiou (2006) . Their definitions are listed in Table 1. Table 1. Key Functional Needs
Definition Advancement The desire to gain power, progress rapidly, and accumulate in-game symbols of wealth or status ing an interest in analyzing the underlying rules and system in order to character performan L Relationship he need to form long-term relationships with others Escapism Need to avoid thinking about real life problems through immersion in the People with strong needs for advancement and interest in the mechanics of the game are likely to spend more time playing online games. The same goes for thos strong need for forming relationships and escaping the reality through online games. These functional objectives are often unattainable without practice, repeated atte perseverance, and hence are expected to be positively related to game playing. Anecdotal evidence suggests that these needs are associated with continued game play Hla: Need for advancement increases the extent of online game playing HIb: Need for mastering a game s mechanics increases the extent of online game playing HId: Need for escapism increases the extent of online game playing We argue that the functional needs that motivate game playing can also cater to the formation of high levels of online game playing addiction. When ones abovement become constant, frequent, strong and automatic, he or she can develop a compulsive pattern of game-seeking and use behaviors which is a manifestation of addiction Berridge, 2003). The competitive aspects of games cater to ones need for achievement and mastering the game mechanics, which in turn, help the formation of add et al., 2009). The social and interactive aspect of games caters to the social and escapism needs of game players, and can also inform the formation of online game ad (Klimmt et al., 2009 Specifically, the need for competition and mastering the mechanics of the game may cause users to be more engaged in the games, which is a manifestation of flow st et al., 1993). Flow states often drive computer users to further and repeatedly use information systems (Koufaris, 2002), and can lead to online game addiction( Chou Ting, 2003). Moreover, online game playing can become a substitute for real life social interaction( riffiths, 2009). When one's needs for virtual social interactions and escaping real-life interactions are high, he or she can also engage in excessive game playing whi diction Lo et al., 2005). Indeed, it has been shown that at least the need for escapism, and need for advancement predict online game addiction (Yee, 2006). There H2a: Need for advancement increases the level of online game addiction Ime 's mechanics increases the level of online game addiction H2c: Need for relationship increases the level of online game addiction. H2d: Need for escapism increases the level of online game addiction Addiction often develops through excessive and repetitive use, which re-wires people's brains and makes them develop a somewhat unrealistic set of positive expecta the IT artifact(Turel et al., Forthcoming). In substance abuse settings, people's brains become hypersensitive to cues from the addictive substance and overemphasize salience of the thrill, until it forms a pathological state of"wanting"(Robinson Berridge, 1993; Robinson Berridge, 2001). Given the neurobehavioral similarities substance addictions and online game addiction(Ko et al., 2009a), it is reasonable to expect that the same holds in the context of online games. Taken together, we ex hore a user plays online games, the stronger the psychological dependency he or she develops, and the stronger his or her addiction symptoms(e. g, conflict with oth will be. Hence H3: The extent of online game playing increases the level of online game addiction. The influences of prevention and harm reduction factors on online addiction Based on a review of the addiction prevention and harm reduction literature(Dickson et al., 2002; Echeburua& de corral, 2010: Eissenberg, 2004: Flay petra Hatsukami et al., 2004; Hwang et al., 2004; Marlatt, 1996, Stice et al., 2006, van Hamel et al., 2007, wiehe et al., 2005), we identified six prevention and harm reduc that can reduce online game playing, ease some of the symptoms of online game addiction(e.g, conflict with other activities), and ultimately alleviate one's level of a These factors and their definitions are listed in Table 2
Construct Definition Advancement The desire to gain power, progress rapidly, and accumulate in-game symbols of wealth or status. Mechanics Having an interest in analyzing the underlying rules and system in order to optimize character performance. Relationship The need to form long-term relationships with others. Escapism Need to avoid thinking about real life problems through immersion in the game. People with strong needs for advancement and interest in the mechanics of the game are likely to spend more time playing online games. The same goes for thos strong need for forming relationships and escaping the reality through online games. These functional objectives are often unattainable without practice, repeated atte perseverance; and hence are expected to be positively related to game playing. Anecdotal evidence suggests that these needs are associated with continued game play 2010; Joe & Chiu, 2009; Lin, 2010), and that many online game players engage in this activity to escape reality (Hussain & Griffiths, 2009), socialize (Blais et al., 20 a need to excel, at least in the virtual world, as a potential alternative to deficiencies in some aspects of the real world (Yee, 2006; Young, 2010a; Young, 2010b). Hen H1a: Need for advancement increases the extent of online game playing. H1b: Need for mastering a game’s mechanics increases the extent of online game playing. H1c: Need for relationship increases the extent of online game playing. H1d: Need for escapism increases the extent of online game playing. We argue that the functional needs that motivate game playing can also cater to the formation of high levels of online game playing addiction. When one’s abovement become constant, frequent, strong and automatic, he or she can develop a compulsive pattern of game-seeking and use behaviors which is a manifestation of addiction & Berridge, 2003). The competitive aspects of games cater to ones need for achievement and mastering the game mechanics, which in turn, help the formation of add et al., 2009). The social and interactive aspect of games caters to the social and escapism needs of game players, and can also inform the formation of online game ad (Klimmt et al., 2009). Specifically, the need for competition and mastering the mechanics of the game may cause users to be more engaged in the games, which is a manifestation of flow st et al., 1993). Flow states often drive computer users to further and repeatedly use information systems (Koufaris, 2002), and can lead to online game addiction (Chou & Ting, 2003). Moreover, online game playing can become a substitute for real life social interaction ( Griffiths, 2009). When one’s needs for virtual social interactions and escaping real-life interactions are high, he or she can also engage in excessive game playing whi addiction (Lo et al., 2005). Indeed, it has been shown that at least the need for escapism, and need for advancement predict online game addiction (Yee, 2006). There H2a: Need for advancement increases the level of online game addiction. H2b: Need for mastering a game’s mechanics increases the level of online game addiction. H2c: Need for relationship increases the level of online game addiction. H2d: Need for escapism increases the level of online game addiction. Addiction often develops through excessive and repetitive use, which re-wires people’s brains and makes them develop a somewhat unrealistic set of positive expecta the IT artifact (Turel et al., Forthcoming). In substance abuse settings, people’s brains become hypersensitive to cues from the addictive substance and overemphasize salience of the thrill, until it forms a pathological state of “wanting” (Robinson & Berridge, 1993; Robinson & Berridge, 2001). Given the neurobehavioral similaritie substance addictions and online game addiction (Ko et al., 2009a), it is reasonable to expect that the same holds in the context of online games. Taken together, we ex more a user plays online games, the stronger the psychological dependency he or she develops, and the stronger his or her addiction symptoms (e.g., conflict with oth will be. Hence: H3: The extent of online game playing increases the level of online game addiction. The influences of prevention and harm reduction factors on online game addiction Based on a review of the addiction prevention and harm reduction literature (Dickson et al., 2002; Echeburua & de Corral, 2010; Eissenberg, 2004; Flay & Petra Hatsukami et al., 2004; Hwang et al., 2004; Marlatt, 1996; Stice et al., 2006; van Hamel et al., 2007; Wiehe et al., 2005), we identified six prevention and harm reduc that can reduce online game playing, ease some of the symptoms of online game addiction (e.g., conflict with other activities), and ultimately alleviate one’s level of a These factors and their definitions are listed in Table 2
Table 2. Prevention and Harm Reduction Factors Construct Definition Dissuasion The extent to which an individual per ers efforts to prevent playing online game by means of exhortation, ng, browbeating Rationalization/ The degree to which an individual is trained to understand the Education ociated with a problematic program of behavior ention to and track his or her whereabouts, activities, and outcomes Resource h he degree to which a player perceives that he or she is being restricted by Restriction the constraining of game playing resources such time, money, equipment Perceived Cost The ex which a player perceives the financial cost of playing online We believe that general extracurricular activities(e.g, sports)may make adolescents focus less on game playing and thus reduce the extent of game playing and one's level of online game addiction. Even though motivating factors such as a strong need for advancement may push individuals towards excessive use and potentia addiction, the constant occupation with other activities(e.g. school, sports, and social events)will plausibly reduce ones online game playing time, shift his or her att from online games, and ultimately alleviate his or her addiction levels. Indeed, it has been reported that attention switching can stop or reduce participation in online g which is an attitude-discrepant behavior for addicts and excessive users(Wan& Chiou, 2006).Hence H4a: Attention switching reduces online game playing H4b: Attention switching reduces the level of addiction to online games To dissuade means to advise against something by means of exhortation or argument. The term implies coaxing rather than browbeating, using reason instead of coer ommon practice exercised by external forces(regulators, parents, teachers, friends) for the prevention of undesirable behaviors such as smoking, alcohol abuse, and (e.g, De Brouwere et al., 1998; Eiser Vanderpligt, 1986). Studies have demonstrated that dissuasion can make a difference, at least in the case of alcohol abuse(Ba In the same vein, we believe that dissuasion is a common tactic employed by parents and social circles, which may be effective in reducing online game use and ultim addiction. Turel et al(Forthcoming ) has shown that technology addicts have a distorted rationality, and dissuasion is one potential means for shaping and fixing or stem. Therefore H5a: Dissuasion reduces online game playing H5b: Dissuasion reduces the level of addiction to online games ognitions, rationalization is aimed mostly at building good cognitive foundations, and can be self-managed. That is, it does not have to come from an external source parents and teachers. Rather, a person can educate herself regarding the risks of a certain program of behavior (e. g, by reading newspaper articles or watching TV ner Some online game players may not naturally realize the potential negative consequences of online game-playing, and may have distorted beliefs and attitudes tow games(Yang& Tung, 2007). Exposure to appropriate education and guidance may encourage rational thinking so as to reduce the chance of excessive use and potent preventing addiction(Faggiano et al., 2008). This mechanism operates, like dissuasion, against the potential distorted rationality of online game players and addicts Forthcoming). Thus H6a: Rationalization/education reduces online game playing. H6b: Rationalicationeducation reduces the level of addiction to online games Parental influence is an important risk factor or protective factor of youth problem behaviors( Chen et al., 2008), and especially addictions( Loke Wong, 201 Wilson, 2008). Specifically, lack of parental monitoring is correlated with risky behavior of young children, leading to accidental injury, antisocial and delinquent beh abstance use in adolescence(Dishion et al., 2003; Kiesner et al., 2009). Greater parental monitoring or parents'knowledge of their childrens daily activities and wh are associated with less deviant behavior. I Monitoring in the case of online games is an effective strategy preventing users from engaging in seemingly unsupervised acts of excessive or inappropriate use Bruner, 2006: Young, 1998a; Young, 2010b). Even the location of one's computer(how observable it is in one's house)can affect online game playing and addiction
Table 2. Prevention and Harm Reduction Factors Construct Definition Attention Switching The extent to which other meaningful activities are offered to distract addict’s attention from engaging in the problematic behavior. Dissuasion The extent to which an individual perceives others’ efforts to prevent playing online game by means of exhortation, argument, coaxing, browbeating or coercion. Rationalization/ Education The degree to which an individual is trained to understand the issues associated with a problematic program of behavior. Parental Monitoring The extent to which an individual perceives his or her parents or guardians to pay attention to and track his or her whereabouts, activities, and outcomes. Resource Restriction The degree to which a player perceives that he or she is being restricted by the constraining of game playing resources such time, money, equipment, regulation and guidance. Perceived Cost The extent to which a player perceives the financial cost of playing online games to be high. We believe that general extracurricular activities (e.g., sports) may make adolescents focus less on game playing and thus reduce the extent of game playing and one’s level of online game addiction. Even though motivating factors such as a strong need for advancement may push individuals towards excessive use and potentia addiction, the constant occupation with other activities (e.g. school, sports, and social events) will plausibly reduce one’s online game playing time, shift his or her att from online games, and ultimately alleviate his or her addiction levels. Indeed, it has been reported that attention switching can stop or reduce participation in online g which is an attitude-discrepant behavior for addicts and excessive users (Wan & Chiou, 2006). Hence: H4a: Attention switching reduces online game playing. H4b: Attention switching reduces the level of addiction to online games. To dissuade means to advise against something by means of exhortation or argument. The term implies coaxing rather than browbeating, using reason instead of coerc common practice exercised by external forces (regulators, parents, teachers, friends) for the prevention of undesirable behaviors such as smoking, alcohol abuse, and (e.g., De Brouwere et al., 1998; Eiser & Vanderpligt, 1986). Studies have demonstrated that dissuasion can make a difference, at least in the case of alcohol abuse (Ba In the same vein, we believe that dissuasion is a common tactic employed by parents and social circles, which may be effective in reducing online game use and ultim addiction. Turel et al (Forthcoming) has shown that technology addicts have a distorted rationality, and dissuasion is one potential means for shaping and fixing one’s system. Therefore: H5a: Dissuasion reduces online game playing. H5b: Dissuasion reduces the level of addiction to online games. Rationalization/education refers to knowledge-focused or educational efforts aimed at one’s cognitions. As opposed to dissuasion which is an active effort agains cognitions, rationalization is aimed mostly at building good cognitive foundations, and can be self-managed. That is, it does not have to come from an external source parents and teachers. Rather, a person can educate herself regarding the risks of a certain program of behavior (e.g., by reading newspaper articles or watching TV new addiction stories). Some online game players may not naturally realize the potential negative consequences of online game-playing, and may have distorted beliefs and attitudes tow games (Yang & Tung, 2007). Exposure to appropriate education and guidance may encourage rational thinking so as to reduce the chance of excessive use and potent preventing addiction (Faggiano et al., 2008). This mechanism operates, like dissuasion, against the potential distorted rationality of online game players and addicts (T Forthcoming). Thus: H6a: Rationalization/education reduces online game playing. H6b: Rationalization/education reduces the level of addiction to online games. Parental influence is an important risk factor or protective factor of youth problem behaviors (Chen et al., 2008), and especially addictions (Loke & Wong, 2010 Wilson, 2008). Specifically, lack of parental monitoring is correlated with risky behavior of young children, leading to accidental injury, antisocial and delinquent beh substance use in adolescence (Dishion et al., 2003; Kiesner et al., 2009). Greater parental monitoring or parents’ knowledge of their children’s daily activities and wh are associated with less deviant behavior, risky behavior, and substance abuse among adolescents (Chuang et al., 2005). Monitoring in the case of online games is an effective strategy preventing users from engaging in seemingly unsupervised acts of excessive or inappropriate use Bruner, 2006; Young, 1998a; Young, 2010b). Even the location of one’s computer (how observable it is in one’s house) can affect online game playing and addiction