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上海交通大学：《英语文学导论 An Introduction to English Literature》课程教学资源（参考资料）three aspects of hawthorne's puritanism

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THREE ASPECTS OF HAWTHORNE'S PURITANISM JOSEPH SCHWARTZ THAT Nathaniel Hawthorne had been charged with being a Puritan either emotionally, imaginatively, or dogmati- cally is a commonplace in Hawthorne scholarship. It began when James Russell Lowell called him a "Puritan Tieck," and when Herman Melville, his sometime friend, seeing more deeply into his own personality than into Hawthorne's, found his appeal in "blackness, ten times more black ... that Cal- vinistic sense of Innate Depravity and Original Sin, from whose visitations, in some shape or other, no deeply think- ing mind is always and wholly free." But this judgment was repudiated even then by the members of Hawthorne's family and by his intimate friends. Sophia, his wife, Julian, his son, James T. Fields, his publisher, and Horatio Bridge, his closest friend, did much to dispel the cloud of gloom that the label "Puritan" was soon to affix to his works. Henry Bright, a British friend, called him "the least morbid of men," and his judgment was echoed by Elizabeth Peabody, Hawthorne's sister-in-law. In the first major critical study made of Haw- thorne's work (1879), Henry James made a special effort to dis- tinguish between Hawthorne's pronounced consciousness of sin and Puritanism. The notebooks, James contended, testify to his "serenity and amenity of mind." James was specifically answering M. Emile Montegut who, writing in the Revue des Deux Mondes, had called Hawthorne "Un Romancier Pessi- miste." James felt that there was nothing to show that Haw- thorne held bitter or morbid views. "The development of Hawthorne's mind was not toward sadness." The results of pessimism-"the note of depression, of despair, of the disposi- tion to undervalue the human race"-cannot be found in the character of Hawthorne's mind and imagination.' Despite the fact that James's Hawthorne is regarded by many as one of the 1 Henry James, Hawthorne (Ithaca, New York, 1956), 21-22. 192 This content downloaded from 202.120.14.172 on Fri, 10 Nov 2017 17:40:04 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

HAWTHORNE'S PURITANISM 193 best critical studies ever made of an American writer,the issue of Hawthorne's Puritanism was not completely settled to the satisfaction of post-Jamesian scholars. The great interest in Hawthorne in the twentieth century led to frequent and distinguished reappraisals of his work,in- cluding,of course,new evaluations of his Puritanism."Puri- tanism"had become by now a convenient tag to apply to any writer who has either a deep consciousness of sin or a belief in original sin,which in turn has become confused with a belief in innate depravity,a position which varies greatly from the general tradition of Christian belief.It is largely because of this false identification and because of a misreading of Haw- thorne's own challenge to unqualified optimism,that such a twentieth-century critic as Harry Levin sees,as Melville did, the overwhelming power of blackness in Hawthorne.Alexan- der Cowie agrees in part:"A modified predestination he also found a convenient basis for explaining man's apparent ina- bility to cope successfully with regeneration in this world." Certainly such a strange phrase as"modified predestination" would seem to need some explanation.It is,on the face of things,a philosophic impossibility.In another study,Austin Warren tells us that Hawthorne appears to have been "in imaginative sympathy"with the"great Calvinistic doctrine of predestination."Mark Van Doren tends to agree with Mr. Warren.Yet,Carl Van Doren would have us reject this idea: "He had little Puritanism left in him.Dealing with many of its problems,he reached his own verdicts.His humane moral- ism looked at old prejudices with new eyes."Randall Stewart feels that he accepted some form of belief in depravity and pre- destination.Arlin Turner would agree with this.But Yvor Winters says simply that Hawthorne turned"his back upon the excessively simplified conceptions of his Puritan ances- tors."So the critical war goes on.2 2 These opinions are found in Harry Levin,The Power of Blackness (New York,1958),10,26;Alexander Cowie,The Rise of the American Novel (New York,1948).356;Austin Warren,Nathaniel Hawthorne (New York,1934),xxi; Mark Van Doren,The Best of Hawthorne (New York,1941),11;Carl Van Doren.What Is American Literature?in The Viking Portable Van Doren (New This content downloaded from 202.120.14.172 on Fri,10 Nov 2017 17:40:04 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

HAWTHORNE'S PURITANISM 193 best critical studies ever made of an American writer, the issue of Hawthorne's Puritanism was not completely settled to the satisfaction of post-Jamesian scholars. The great interest in Hawthorne in the twentieth century led to frequent and distinguished reappraisals of his work, in- cluding, of course, new evaluations of his Puritanism. "Puri- tanism" had become by now a convenient tag to apply to any writer who has either a deep consciousness of sin or a belief in original sin, which in turn has become confused with a belief in innate depravity, a position which varies greatly from the general tradition of Christian belief. It is largely because of this false identification and because of a misreading of Haw- thorne's own challenge to unqualified optimism, that such a twentieth-century critic as Harry Levin sees, as Melville did, the overwhelming power of blackness in Hawthorne. Alexan- der Cowie agrees in part: "A modified predestination he also found a convenient basis for explaining man's apparent ina- bility to cope successfully with regeneration in this world." Certainly such a strange phrase as "modified predestination" would seem to need some explanation. It is, on the face of things, a philosophic impossibility. In another study, Austin Warren tells us that Hawthorne appears to have been "in imaginative sympathy" with the "great Calvinistic doctrine of predestination." Mark Van Doren tends to agree with Mr. Warren. Yet, Carl Van Doren would have us reject this idea: "He had little Puritanism left in him. Dealing with many of its problems, he reached his own verdicts. His humane moral- ism looked at old prejudices with new eyes." Randall Stewart feels that he accepted some form of belief in depravity and pre- destination. Arlin Turner would agree with this. But Yvor Winters says simply that Hawthorne turned "his back upon the excessively simplified conceptions of his Puritan ances- tors." So the critical war goes on.2 2 These opinions are found in Harry Levin, The Power of Blackness (New York, 1958), 10, 26; Alexander Cowie, The Rise of the American Novel (New York, 1948), 356; Austin Warren, Nathaniel Hawthorne (New York, 1934), xxi; Mark Van Doren, The Best of Hawthorne (New York, 1941), 11; Carl Van Doren, What Is American Literature? in The Viking Portable Van Doren (New This content downloaded from 202.120.14.172 on Fri, 10 Nov 2017 17:40:04 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

194 THE NEW ENGLAND QUARTERLY There are understandable reasons for this disagreement over such an important idea.In stories that appear side by side, Hawthorne apparently seems to condemn and admire Puri- tanism.But if we are to believe that he is not completely con- tradictory,there must be a reason for his peculiar ambivalence. Some order can be made out of what is only an apparent con- tradiction,if we remember that Hawthorne's differing atti- tudes toward Puritanism refer specifically to different facets of this one large concept.Puritanism was not a theology alone. Although it became the American branch of Calvinism,it also gave its name to a characteristic way of life.And,for Haw- thorne,Puritanism was also associated with the American struggle for political liberty.Thus,his comments on Puritan- ism cannot be adequately treated unless we understand that his discussion is manifestly limited to three specific areas:(1) Puritanism as a theology of predestination and universal de- pravity;(2)Puritanism as a way of life;(3)Puritanism as it was involved in the early struggle for political liberty in Amer- ica. Hawthorne's nonfictional attitude toward Puritanism in general can be indicated simply,if not thoroughly,because there are only a few instances of his discussion of it.He tells us of a conversation he had with G.P.R.James,the novelist, concerning the Puritans,"about whom we agreed pretty well in our opinions."James later wrote him a note asking him to come to a haymaking,admonishing him to leave his"grim old Puritans''at home.In another instance,he recorded that it was difficult to write a lively and entertaining book for chil- dren when he had such unmalleable material as the somber, stern,and rigid Puritans with which to work.+It is not too York,1945).5g0;Randall Stewart,Nathaniel Hawthorne:A Biography (New Haven,1948),244ff.;Arlin Turner,"Hawthorne and Reform,"NEw ENGLAND QUARTERLY,XV,708(1942):and Yvor Winters,In Defense of Reason (New York, 1947),174. 3 The American Notebooks by Nathaniel Hawthorne,edited by Randall Stewart (New Haven,1932).232-233. 4 The Complete Writings of Nathaniel Hawthorne,The Old Manse Edition, edited by H.E.Scudder(Boston,1goo)xn,xxiv.Subsequent references to Haw- This content downloaded from 202.120.14.172 on Fri,10 Nov 2017 17:40:04 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

194 THE NEW ENGLAND QUARTERLY There are understandable reasons for this disagreement over such an important idea. In stories that appear side by side, Hawthorne apparently seems to condemn and admire Puri- tanism. But if we are to believe that he is not completely con- tradictory, there must be a reason for his peculiar ambivalence. Some order can be made out of what is only an apparent con- tradiction, if we remember that Hawthorne's differing atti- tudes toward Puritanism refer specifically to different facets of this one large concept. Puritanism was not a theology alone. Although it became the American branch of Calvinism, it also gave its name to a characteristic way of life. And, for Haw- thorne, Puritanism was also associated with the American struggle for political liberty. Thus, his comments on Puritan- ism cannot be adequately treated unless we understand that his discussion is manifestly limited to three specific areas: (1) Puritanism as a theology of predestination and universal de- pravity; (2) Puritanism as a way of life; (3) Puritanism as it was involved in the early struggle for political liberty in Amer- ica. Hawthorne's nonfictional attitude toward Puritanism in general can be indicated simply, if not thoroughly, because there are only a few instances of his discussion of it. He tells us of a conversation he had with G. P. R. James, the novelist, concerning the Puritans, "about whom we agreed pretty well in our opinions." 3 James later wrote him a note asking him to come to a haymaking, admonishing him to leave his "grim old Puritans" at home. In another instance, he recorded that it was difficult to write a lively and entertaining book for chil- dren when he had such unmalleable material as the somber, stern, and rigid Puritans with which to work.4 It is not too York, 1945), 590; Randall Stewart, Nathaniel Hawthorne: A Biography (New Haven, 1948), 244ff.; Arlin Turner, "Hawthorne and Reform," NEW ENGLAND QUARTERLY, XV, 708 (1942); and Yvor Winters, In Defense of Reason (New York, 1947), 174. 3 The American Notebooks by Nathaniel Hawthorne, edited by Randall Stewart (New Haven, 1932), 232-233. 4 The Complete Writings of Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Old Manse Edition, edited by H. E. Scudder (Boston, igoo) xii, xxiv. Subsequent references to HawThis content downloaded from 202.120.14.172 on Fri, 10 Nov 2017 17:40:04 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

HAWTHORNE'S PURITANISM 195 fruitful,however,to pursue a study of his generalizations.It is better to look at the various facets of Puritanism which we can discover from a close reading of his works. It is not a simple matter to piece together Hawthorne's at- titude toward Puritanism as a theology of predestination and personal depravity.He was no formal critic of religion nor a practiced theologian.Despite some very direct statements,it is chiefly by implication that we can discover his critical posi- tion concerning these matters.His attitude toward the Puri- tan religion is further complicated by his universally rec- ognized rejection of Unitarianism,the "new"religion,op- posed to the"old"orthodoxy,as seen in one of his best satires, "The Celestial Railroad."Because the cold scorn with which he treats Unitarianism in this story is unmistakable,some of his commentators have been led to assert that he chose the old while opposing the new.That he rejected both has not often been recognized as a possibility,despite that fact that he called Calvinism a"lump of lead"and Unitarianism "a feather"in the same passage.Neither"variety of the black-coated tribe" captured his allegiance.(IV,24-26.)It still remains a crucial matter to demonstrate that he found neither solace nor com- fort in the religion of his ancestors. Hawthorne always felt that the religious system of Puritan- ism was hard,cold,and confined;it was only the fervent faith of firm believers that redeemed it all.He seems to praise the attitude of the individual believer,but not the system of be- lief.We see this illustrated in"Main Street"in his analysis of the Puritan meetinghouse."A meaner temple,"he writes, "was never consecrated to the worship of the Deity."As long as their individual faith was strong,"as long as their lamps were kindled at the heavenly flame,"they were able to give a radiance to the place.But even in the time of the first genera- tion,and certainly in their children's time,"these lamps be- gan to burn more dimly."Then it could be seen clearly "how thorne's writings will be to this edition and will be indicated by volume and page numbers inserted parenthetically in the text. This content downloaded from 202.120.14.172 on Fri,10 Nov 2017 17:40:04 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

HAWTHORNE'S PURITANISM 195 fruitful, however, to pursue a study of his generalizations. It is better to look at the various facets of Puritanism which we can discover from a close reading of his works. It is not a simple matter to piece together Hawthorne's at- titude toward Puritanism as a theology of predestination and personal depravity. He was no formal critic of religion nor a practiced theologian. Despite some very direct statements, it is chiefly by implication that we can discover his critical posi- tion concerning these matters. His attitude toward the Puri- tan religion is further complicated by his universally rec- ognized rejection of Unitarianism, the "new" religion, op- posed to the "old" orthodoxy, as seen in one of his best satires, "The Celestial Railroad." Because the cold scorn with which he treats Unitarianism in this story is unmistakable, some of his commentators have been led to assert that he chose the old while opposing the new. That he rejected both has not often been recognized as a possibility, despite that fact that he called Calvinism a "lump of lead" and Unitarianism "a feather" in the same passage. Neither "variety of the black-coated tribe" captured his allegiance. (Iv, 24-26.) It still remains a crucial matter to demonstrate that he found neither solace nor com- fort in the religion of his ancestors. Hawthorne always felt that the religious system of Puritan- ism was hard, cold, and confined; it was only the fervent faith of firm believers that redeemed it all. He seems to praise the attitude of the individual believer, but not the system of be- lief. We see this illustrated in "Main Street" in his analysis of the Puritan meetinghouse. "A meaner temple," he writes, "was never consecrated to the worship of the Deity." As long as their individual faith was strong, "as long as their lamps were kindled at the heavenly flame," they were able to give a radiance to the place. But even in the time of the first genera- tion, and certainly in their children's time, "these lamps be- gan to burn more dimly." Then it could be seen clearly "how thorne's writings will be to this edition and will be indicated by volume and page numbers inserted parenthetically in the text. This content downloaded from 202.120.14.172 on Fri, 10 Nov 2017 17:40:04 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

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