sustainable structures:可持续结构 conceptual,.physical and/or numerical:概念，物理和数值（模型）》 discrepancies:差异，不同之处 ISSMFE:International Society for Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering.国际土力学及 基础工程协会 International Association for Engineering Geology and the environment(LAEG).国际工程地质 与环境协会 ISRM:International Society for Rock Mechanics..国际岩石力学学会 This model requires the specification of two general features,namely,composition and geological boundary conditions..这个模型需要两个方面的特征说明：组成和地质边界条件。 Ground engineering is based on a ground model that incorporates the geological model and the parameters and material roperties:大地工程是建立在包含有地质模型和 相关工程参数和材料特性的大地模型之上 15
15 sustainable structures：可持续结构 conceptual, physical and/or numerical：概念，物理和数值（模型） discrepancies：差异，不同之处 ISSMFE : International Society for Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering. 国际土力学及 基础工程协会 International Association for Engineering Geology and the environment (IAEG). 国际工程地质 与环境协会 ISRM: International Society for Rock Mechanics. 国际岩石力学学会 This model requires the specification of two general features, namely, composition and geological boundary conditions. 这个模型需要两个方面的特征说明：组成和地质边界条件。 Ground engineering is based on a ground model that incorporates the geological model and the relevant engineering parameters and material properties：大地工程是建立在包含有地质模型和 相关工程参数和材料特性的大地模型之上
CHAPTER III Geology Minerals The following definitions on what constitutes a mineral were taken from several different sources and are arranged by year 1)"A mineral is an element or chemical compound that is normally crystalline and that has been formed as a result of geological processes"(Nickel,E.H.,1995). 2) "Minerals are naturally-occurring inorganic substances with a definite and predictable chemical composition and physical properties"Donoghue,190). 3)"A mineral is a naturally occurring homogeneous solid,inorganically formed,with a definite chemical composition and an ordered atomic arrangement"(Mason,et al,1968). 4)"distinguished from one another by individual characteristics that arise directly from the kinds of atoms they contain and the arrangements these atoms make inside them"(Sinkankas.1966). "A mineral is a body produced by the processes of inorganic nature,having usually a definite chemical composition and,if formed under favorable conditions,a cerain characteristic atomic structure which is expressed in its crystalline form and other physical properties"(Dana&Ford,1932). "Every distinct chemical compound occurring in inorganic nature,having a definite molecular structure or system of crystallization and well-defined physical properties. constitutes a mineral species"(Brush&Penfield,1898). THE material of which the crust of the earth consists is spoken of term which we shall presently define more precisely.Rocks are in tum combinations large aggregates of a single material,and these are formed by the combination of by the union of those elementary combinations of elements which are called ions.The study of chemical elements and of their combination into ions and the union of these to form other substances(salts. etc),belongs in the domain of chemistry.The study of minerals,their properties and belongs to the special branch of the earth science called mineralogy.An elementary preparation in chemistry and mineralogy is necessary to the student,and should be obtained by him if possible before undertaking the study of geology.In this book we can give only a brief summary of the more important elements and minerals with which the student should have some acquaintance The important minerals which enter into the composition of the rocks,or which themselves occur in rock-like masses,will be dealt with somewhat more fully in the discussion of these rocks
16 CHAPTER III Geology Minerals The following definitions on what constitutes a mineral were taken from several different sources and are arranged by year: 1) "A mineral is an element or chemical compound that is normally crystalline and that has been formed as a result of geological processes" (Nickel, E. H., 1995). 2) "Minerals are naturally-occurring inorganic substances with a definite and predictable chemical composition and physical properties." (O' Donoghue, 1990). 3) "A mineral is a naturally occurring homogeneous solid, inorganically formed, with a definite chemical composition and an ordered atomic arrangement" (Mason, et al, 1968). 4) "These... minerals ...can be distinguished from one another by individual characteristics that arise directly from the kinds of atoms they contain and the arrangements these atoms make inside them" (Sinkankas, 1966). 5) "A mineral is a body produced by the processes of inorganic nature, having usually a definite chemical composition and, if formed under favorable conditions, a certain characteristic atomic structure which is expressed in its crystalline form and other physical properties" (Dana & Ford, 1932). 6) "Every distinct chemical compound occurring in inorganic nature, having a definite molecular structure or system of crystallization and well-defined physical properties, constitutes a mineral species" (Brush & Penfield, 1898). THE material of which the crust of the earth consists is spoken of as rock, a term which we shall presently define more precisely. Rocks are in turn combinations of minerals or large aggregates of a single material, and these are formed by the combination of chemical elements, or by the union of those elementary combinations of elements which are called ions. The study of chemical elements and of their combination into ions and the union of these to form other substances (salts, etc.), belongs in the domain of chemistry. The study of minerals, their properties and occurrence, belongs to the special branch of the earth science called mineralogy. An elementary preparation in chemistry and mineralogy is necessary to the student, and should be obtained by him if possible before undertaking the study of geology. In this book we can give only a brief summary of the more important elements and minerals with which the student should have some acquaintance. The important minerals which enter into the composition of the rocks, or which themselves occur in rock-like masses, will be dealt with somewhat more fully in the discussion of these rocks
LITHOSPHERE HYDROSPHERE AVERAGE NAME OF ELEMENT SYMBOL 93 PER CENT 7 PER CENT INCLUDING OF WHOLE OF WHOLE ATMOSPHERE Oxyger 0 47.33 8579 50.02 Silicon 27.74 25.80 Aluminum 7.85 7.30 Iron 合 4.50 4.18 Calcium 9 3.47 3.22 Magnesium Mg 2.24 .14 2.08 Sodium Na 2.46 114 2.36 Potassium K 2.46 .04 2.28 Hydrogen 22 10.67 .95 Titanium 46 Carbon 19 ,002 Chlorine 9 06 2.07 20 Bromine .008 、 Phosphorous P 12 11 Sulphur 12 .09 11 Barium %0 Manganese 08 Strontium 从 .02 Nitrogen Flourine 10 All other Elements including Gold,Silver,Platinum, Arsenic,Copper,Lead, 响 Mercury,Nickel,Tin,Zinc, Radium,etc. Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 Physical Characters
17 NAME OF ELEMENT SYMBOL LITHOSPHERE 93 PER CENT OF WHOLE HYDROSPHERE 7 PER CENT OF WHOLE AVERAGE INCLUDING ATMOSPHERE Oxygen 0 47.33 85.79 50.02 Silicon Si 27.74 - 25.80 Aluminum Al 7.85 - 7.30 Iron Fe 4.50 - 4.18 Calcium Ca 3.47 .05 3.22 Magnesium Mg 2.24 .14 2.08 Sodium Na 2.46 1.14 2.36 Potassium K 2.46 .04 2.28 Hydrogen H .22 10.67 .95 Titanium Ti .46 - .43 Carbon C .19 .002 .18 Chlorine Cl .06 2.07 .20 Bromine Br - .008 - Phosphorous P .12 - .11 Sulphur S .12 .09 .11 Barium Ba .08 - .08 Manganese Mn .08 - .08 Strontium Sr .02 - .02 Nitrogen N - - .03 Flourine Fl .10 - .10 All other Elements including Gold, Silver, Platinum, Arsenic, Copper, Lead, Mercury, Nickel, Tin, Zinc, Radium, etc. - .50 - .47 Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 Physical Characters
Cleavage.The ability ofa mineral to split more planes parallel to actual or possible crystal planes is called cleavage,and is an important aid in identifying mineral species. Fracture.--The mode of breaking in directions other than those of cleavage is the type of fracture of the mineral.It is conhd when it has rounded surfaces suggestive of a shell:evenorvn when nearly plain.or rough and irregular,hacklyor splintery,when it has ragged sharp points and depressions,or separates in a fiber-splinter-like manner.Tenacity.-mineral is britle when it breaks into powder,sectile,when small slices can be shaved off which crumble under a hammer, malleable when slices from it will flatten under a hammer,oh,when great resistance to tearing apart under strain or a blow is shown;cl when it can be drawn into wire.HardnessThe resistance of a smooth plane,whether crystal,cleavage,or fracture,to abrasion is called the hardness,and is commonly determined by scratching the surface.It is expressed in terms of a scale often common minerals(Mohs scale).Each mineral will scratch all those softer than itself. Scale of Hardness Talc 6. Orthoclase 2 Gypsum(Selenite) 1. Quartz 3. Calcite 8. Topaz 4. Fluorite 9 Sapphire 5. Apatite 10. Diamond Minerals below 2.5 in hardness can usually be scratched with a finger nail;those below 6 by a pocket knife.Any mineral above5.5 will scratch window glass.By these simple tests hardness can be determined approximately Luster.--The brilliancy or shine of a mineral is called its luster.It is dependent upon the refractive power,transparency,and structure of the mineral.The following types are recognized a.Metallic:luster of metals,gold,silver,copper,etc b.Non-metallic luster comprising Vitreous-the luster of a fractured surface of glass,example,quartz. Adamantine-the luster of uncut diamond,zircon,etc.,due to high index of refraction Resinous-the luster of resin,example,sphalerite Greasy-the luster ofoiled glass,example,elmolite Pearly--the luster of mother of pearl:example,foliated talc. Silky-the luster of silk.example.satin spar. Dull-without luster or shine of any kind,examples,chalk.kaolin.The prefix subis used to express a lesser degree of the particular luster,e.g.sub-metallic.sub-vitreous,ete. Color --This depends on chemical composition and is variable;or on physical constitution,when a variety of color-changes with the changes in the direction of light is produced.These are:Play of
18 Cleavage.--The ability of a mineral to split along one or more planes parallel to actual or possible crystal planes is called cleavage, and is an important aid in identifying mineral species. Fracture.--The mode of breaking in directions other than those of cleavage is the type of fracture of the mineral. It is conchoidal when it h as rounded surfaces suggestive of a shell; even or uneven, when nearly plain, or rough and irregular; hackly or splintery, when it has ragged sharp points and depressions, or separates in a fiber- splinter-like manner. Tenacity. -- mineral is brittle when it breaks into powder; sectile, when small slices can be shaved off which crumble under a hammer; malleable when slices from it will flatten under a hammer; tough, when great resistance to tearing apart under strain or a blow is shown; ductile, when it can be drawn into wire. Hardness -- The resistance of a smooth plane, whether crystal, cleavage, or fracture, to abrasion is called the hardness, and is commonly determined by scratching the surface. It is expressed in terms of a scale of ten common minerals (Mohs scale). Each mineral will scratch all those softer than itself. Scale of Hardness 1. Talc 6. Orthoclase 2. Gypsum (Selenite) 7. Quartz 3. Calcite 8. Topaz 4. Fluorite 9. Sapphire 5. Apatite 10. Diamond Minerals below 2.5 in hardness can usually be scratched with a finger nail; those below 6 by a pocket knife. Any mineral above 5.5 will scratch window glass. By these simple tests hardness can be determined approximately. Luster.-- The brilliancy or shine of a mineral is called its luster. It is dependent upon the refractive power, transparency, and structure of the mineral. The following types are recognized: a. Metallic: luster of metals, gold, silver, copper, etc. b. Non-metallic luster comprising: Vitreous -- the luster of a fractured surface of glass; example, quartz. Adamantine -- the luster of uncut diamond, zircon, etc., due to high index of refraction. Resinous -- the luster of resin; example, sphalerite. Greasy -- the luster of oiled glass; example, elmolite. Pearly -- the luster of mother of pearl; example, foliated talc. Silky -- the luster of silk; example, satin spar. Dull -- without luster or shine of any kind; examples, chalk, kaolin.The prefix sub- is used to express a lesser degree of the particular luster; e.g. sub-metallic, sub-vitreous, etc. Color -- This depends on chemical composition and is variable; or on physical constitution, when a variety of color-changes with the changes in the direction of light is produced. These are: Play of
color(opal,labradorite)Iridescence,bands of,surface discoloration Opalescence,milky or pearly reflection,Asterism,showing a star by reflected or transmitted light. as in ruby,etc.,or in some micas Streak-The color of the fine powder of a mineral is its streak.It is obtained by scratching the mineral or rubbing it uponasmooth,white.and hard surface Translucency-The capacity for transmitting light is the translucency of a mineral.A mineral is transparent when objects can be seen through it with clearness;translucent,when it transmits light. but objects cannot be seen;opaque when no light passes through even the thin edges Sub-transparent and sub-translucent are aso used. Specifie gravity--The weight of a substance divided by the weight of an equal volume of distilled water(at 4C.)is its specific gravity.Exact determinations are made by fine balances,but rough determinations can be made by weighing in the hand and comparing with a mineral of equal size and known specific gravity. Taste-Some minerals have a taste,such as astringent (alum).salry(common salt).bitter (epsom salts)alkaline(soda),acid (sassolite).cooling(niter).pungent (sal-ammoniac). OdoOn heatingor buming.some minerals give offodors,of which those of garlic (arsenic minerals).horseradish (selenium minerals).or sulplur are examples.Fetid,bituminous,and argillaceous(clay)odors also occur,the latter noticeable on breathing upon the substance. Feel-The response of a mineral to the sense of touch may be smooh soapy (talc),harsh meager (aluminite)the latter distinguishing gems from glass. Other CharactersAfew minerals are magnetic,and there is great variation in transmission of heat-rays and of conductivity.Various electric phenomena also exist ROCK A ROCK may be defined as a mineral mass or an association of minerals,which in their natural occurrence form an essential part of the earth's crust.This distinction is not a very precise one. especially when the material of the rock consists of ony one mineral.Thus the calcite in a vein would be considered a mineral,while essentially the same material in a bed of marble would be considered a rock.We shall see,however,as we proceed with the discussion of the rocks,that in practice the distinction between rock and mineral can as a rule be readily made AGE OF ROCKS It will be useful at this early stage of our study to recognize the fact that the rocks of the earth's crust are of various ages.Some,like the rocks which make up the Adirondack Mountains,Pikes Peak in Colorado,the Highlands of the Hudson,the Scottish High lands,the main mass of Finland and a great part of central France,etc are very old,others.like those of the"puys"which are
19 color (opal, labradorite); Iridescence, bands of prismatic color; Tarnish, surface discoloration; Opalescence, milky or pearly reflection; Asterism, showing a star by reflected or transmitted light, as in ruby, etc., or in some micas. Streak -- The color of the fine powder of a mineral is its streak. It is obtained by scratching the mineral or rubbing it upon a smooth, white, and hard surface. Translucency-- The capacity for transmitting light is the translucency of a mineral. A mineral is transparent when objects can be seen through it with clearness; translucent, when it transmits light, but objects cannot be seen; opaque when no light passes through even the thin edges. Sub-transparent and sub-translucent are also used. Specific gravity-- The weight of a substance divided by the weight of an equal volume of distilled water (at 4° C.) is its specific gravity. Exact determinations are made by fine balances, but rough determinations can be made by weighing in the hand and comparing with a mineral of equal size and known specific gravity. Taste-- Some minerals have a taste, such as astringent (alum); salty (common salt); bitter (epsom salts); alkaline (soda); acid (sassolite); cooling (niter); pungent (sal-ammoniac), Odor-- On heating or burning, some minerals give off odors, of which those of garlic (arsenic minerals), horseradish (selenium minerals), or sulphur are examples. Fetid, bituminous, and argillaceous (clay) odors also occur, the latter noticeable on breathing upon the substance. Feel--The response of a mineral to the sense of touch may be smooth, soapy (talc), harsh, meager (aluminite), or cold, the latter distinguishing gems from glass. Other Characters-- A few minerals are magnetic, and there is great variation in transmission of heat-rays and of conductivity. Various electric phenomena also exist. ROCK A ROCK may be defined as a mineral mass or an association of minerals, which in their natural occurrence form an essential part of the earth's crust. This distinction is not a very precise one, especially when the material of the rock consists of only one mineral. Thus the calcite in a vein would be considered a mineral, while essentially the same material in a bed of marble would be considered a rock. We shall see, however, as we proceed with the discussion of the rocks, that in practice the distinction between rock and mineral can as a rule be readily made. AGE OF ROCKS It will be useful at this early stage of our study to recognize the fact that the rocks of the earth's crust are of various ages. Some, like the rocks which make up the Adirondack Mountains, Pikes Peak in Colorado, the Highlands of the Hudson, the Scottish High lands, the main mass of Finland, and a great part of central France, etc., are very old; others, like those of the "puys" which are