a.Here are some of the areas of research in this view of language: sociolinguistics;pragmatics;semanticsb. Target of language learning : The target of language learning is to learn toexpress communication functions and categories of meaningc. Approaches and methods based on this viewSome of the language learning approaches and methods based on this view oflanguage are: communicative approachesfunctional-notional syllabusesThe Natural ApproachC.The interactional view of languageThe interactional view of language sees language primarily as the means forestablishing and maintaining interpersonal relationships and for performing socialtransactionsbetween individuals.a. Here are some of the areas of research in this view of language:interactionalanalysisconversational analysisethnomethodologyb. Target of language learning: The target of language learning in the interactionalview is learning to initiate and maintain conversations with other people.c.Approaches and methods based on this viewSome of the language learning approaches and methods based on this view oflanguage are:Strategicinteractioncommunicativeapproaches2) Teaching Methods in the Language Classroom:FL teachers must provide students with adequate teaching methodology and time, aswellasappropriatevocabularyandlearningactivitiesthatwill allowforthedevelopmentofverbal skills.There is no single "BEST WAY" to teach. The question teachers must address is whichmethods are best employed during the different stages of the teaching and learningprocess and then design curriculum to meet their final objectives/goals.a.GrammarTranslation:The Grammar Translation method started around the time of Erasmus (1466-1536). Itsprimary focus is on memorization of verb paradigms, grammar rules, and vocabularyApplication of this knowledge was directed on translation of literary texts--focusing ofdevelopingstudents'appreciation ofthetarget language'sliteratureas well asteachingthe language.Activities utilized in today's classrooms include:questions that follow areading passage; translating literary passages from one language to another;memorizing grammar rules; memorizing native-language equivalents of target languagevocabulary. (Highly structured class work with the teacher controlling all activities.)b. Direct Method:The Direct Method was introduced by the German educator Wilhelm Vietor in the early1800's. Focusing on oral language, it requires that all instruction be conducted in thetarget language with no recourse to translation. Reading and writing are taught from thebeginning, although speaking and listening skills are emphasized--grammar is learnedinductively. It has a balanced, four-skill emphasis.c. The Silent Way:The teacher is active in setting up classroom situations while the students do most ofthe talking and interaction among themselves. All four skills (listening, speaking,reading & writing) are taught from the beginning. Student errors are expected as anormal part of learning; the teacher's silence helps to foster self-reliance and studentinitiative.6
6 a. Here are some of the areas of research in this view of language: sociolinguistics ; pragmatics ; semantics b. Target of language learning : The target of language learning is to learn to express communication functions and categories of meaning c. Approaches and methods based on this view Some of the language learning approaches and methods based on this view of language are: communicative approaches functional-notional syllabuses The Natural Approach C. The interactional view of language The interactional view of language sees language primarily as the means for establishing and maintaining interpersonal relationships and for performing social transactions between individuals. a. Here are some of the areas of research in this view of language: interactional analysis conversational analysis ethnomethodology b. Target of language learning: The target of language learning in the interactional view is learning to initiate and maintain conversations with other people. c. Approaches and methods based on this view Some of the language learning approaches and methods based on this view of language are: Strategic interaction communicative approaches 2) Teaching Methods in the Language Classroom: FL teachers must provide students with adequate teaching methodology and time, as well as appropriate vocabulary and learning activities that will allow for the development of verbal skills. There is no single "BEST WAY" to teach. The question teachers must address is which methods are best employed during the different stages of the teaching and learning process and then design curriculum to meet their final objectives/goals. a. Grammar Translation: The Grammar Translation method started around the time of Erasmus (1466-1536). Its primary focus is on memorization of verb paradigms, grammar rules, and vocabulary. Application of this knowledge was directed on translation of literary texts-focusing of developing students' appreciation of the target language's literature as well as teaching the language. Activities utilized in today's classrooms include: questions that follow a reading passage; translating literary passages from one language to another; memorizing grammar rules; memorizing native-language equivalents of target language vocabulary. (Highly structured class work with the teacher controlling all activities.) b. Direct Method: The Direct Method was introduced by the German educator Wilhelm Viëtor in the early 1800's. Focusing on oral language, it requires that all instruction be conducted in the target language with no recourse to translation. Reading and writing are taught from the beginning, although speaking and listening skills are emphasized-grammar is learned inductively. It has a balanced, four-skill emphasis. c. The Silent Way: The teacher is active in setting up classroom situations while the students do most of the talking and interaction among themselves. All four skills (listening, speaking, reading & writing) are taught from the beginning. Student errors are expected as a normal part of learning; the teacher's silence helps to foster self-reliance and student initiative
d. Community Language Learning:Teachers recognize that learning can be threatening and by understanding and acceptingstudents'fears, they help their students feel secure and overcome their fears of languagelearning--ultimately providing students with positive energy directed at languagelearning. Students choose what they want to learn in the class and the syllabus islearner-generated.e.Natural Approach:Introduced by Gottlieb Henese and Dr. L. Sauveur in Boston around 1866. The NaturalApproach is similar to the Direct Method, concentrating on active demonstrations toconveymeaningbyassociatingwordsandphraseswithobjectsandactions.Associationsare achievedvia mime,paraphraseand theuseofmanipulatives.Terrell(1977)focusedontheprinciplesofmeaningfulcommunication,comprehensionbeforeproduction, and indirect error correction. Krashen's (1980) input hypothesis is appliedin the Naturale. Reading Method:The reading method was prominent in the U.S.following the Committee of Twelve in1900andfollowingtheModernForeignLanguageStudyin1928.Theearliermethodwas similar to the traditional Grammar/Translation method and emphasized thetransference of linguistic understanding to English. Presently, the reading methodfocusesmoreonsilentreadingforcomprehensionpurposes.f. ASTP and the Audiolingual Method:This approach is based on the behaviorist belief that language learning is theacquisition of a set of correct language habits. The learner repeats patterns and phrasesin the language laboratory until able to reproduce them spontaneously.ASTP (Army Specialized Training Program) was an intensive, specialized approach tolanguageinstruction used in duringthe 1940's.In thepostwar years,the civilian versionof AsTP and the audiolingual method featured memorization of dialogues,patterndrills,and emphasis on pronunciation.g.Cognitive Methods:Cognitive methods of language teaching are based on meaningful acquisition ofgrammar structures followed by meaningful practice.h.CommunicativeMethods:The goal of communicative language approaches is to create a realistic context forlanguage acquisition in the classroom. The focus is on functional language usage andthe ability to learners to express their own ideas, feelings, attitudes, desires and needs.Openended questioningandproblem-solvingactivities andexchanges ofpersonalinformation areutilizedas theprimarymeansofcommunication.Students usually workwithauthenticmaterials (authenticrealia)in smallgroups on communication activities,during which they receive practice in negotiating meaning.i.Total Physical Response Method:This approach to second language teaching is based on the belief that listeningcomprehension should be fully developed before any active oralparticipation from students is expected (just as it is with children when theyare learning their native language).JamesAshers'TotalPhysicalResponse:1)Skills in second languageacquisition can be more rapidly assimilated if the teacherappeals to the students'kinesthetic-sensorysystem.Asherbelievesthatunderstanding of the spoken language must be developed in advance of speaking.2)Understandingand retention isbestachieved throughmovement(total movementof the student's bodies) in response to command sequences. Asher believes that theimperative form of language is a powerful tool that can be used to guide them to understanding as it manipulates their behavior--many of the gramatical structures of
7 d. Community Language Learning: Teachers recognize that learning can be threatening and by understanding and accepting students' fears, they help their students feel secure and overcome their fears of language learning-ultimately providing students with positive energy directed at language learning. Students choose what they want to learn in the class and the syllabus is learner-generated. e. Natural Approach: Introduced by Gottlieb Henese and Dr. L. Sauveur in Boston around 1866. The Natural Approach is similar to the Direct Method, concentrating on active demonstrations to convey meaning by associating words and phrases with objects and actions. Associations are achieved via mime, paraphrase and the use of manipulatives. Terrell (1977) focused on the principles of meaningful communication, comprehension before production, and indirect error correction. Krashen's (1980) input hypothesis is applied in the Natural e. Reading Method: The reading method was prominent in the U.S. following the Committee of Twelve in 1900 and following the Modern Foreign Language Study in 1928. The earlier method was similar to the traditional Grammar/Translation method and emphasized the transference of linguistic understanding to English. Presently, the reading method focuses more on silent reading for comprehension purposes. f. ASTP and the Audiolingual Method: This approach is based on the behaviorist belief that language learning is the acquisition of a set of correct language habits. The learner repeats patterns and phrases in the language laboratory until able to reproduce them spontaneously. ASTP (Army Specialized Training Program) was an intensive, specialized approach to language instruction used in during the 1940's. In the postwar years, the civilian version of ASTP and the audiolingual method featured memorization of dialogues, pattern drills, and emphasis on pronunciation. g. Cognitive Methods: Cognitive methods of language teaching are based on meaningful acquisition of grammar structures followed by meaningful practice. h. Communicative Methods: The goal of communicative language approaches is to create a realistic context for language acquisition in the classroom. The focus is on functional language usage and the ability to learners to express their own ideas, feelings, attitudes, desires and needs. Open ended questioning and problem-solving activities and exchanges of personal information are utilized as the primary means of communication. Students usually work with authentic materials (authentic realia) in small groups on communication activities, during which they receive practice in negotiating meaning. i. Total Physical Response Method: This approach to second language teaching is based on the belief that listening comprehension should be fully developed before any active oral participation from students is expected (just as it is with children when they are learning their native language) . James Ashers' Total Physical Response: 1) Skills in second language acquisition can be more rapidly assimilated if the teacher appeals to the students' kinesthetic-sensory system. Asher believes that understanding of the spoken language must be developed in advance of speaking. 2) Understanding and retention is best achieved through movement (total movement of the student's bodies) in response to command sequences. Asher believes that the imperative form of language is a powerful tool that can be used to guide them to understanding as it manipulates their behavior-many of the gramatical structures of
the target language can be learned through the use of the imperative.3) Never force students to speak before they are ready. Asher believes that as thetarget language is internalized, speaking will automatically emerge (you mustdecide, as the teacher, when YOU will encourage your students to participate orallyin the classroom).7.Homework:1. What are difference between learning the first language and a foreign language?2. What are the qualities of a good language teacher? To what extent have you gotthese qualities? What do you think you should do so as to become a good teacher inthe future?3. What are the qualities of good language learner? What do they suggest tolanguage teaching?8.Self-assessment:Because students are not familiar with these theroy on the language and view of thelanguage, it is very difficult to help Ss understand it. So it requires T explain it in detailswiththehelpof clare illustrationand examplesbyusingvediotapes.Toget studentsreadmore on linguistics and schools of language methors is also necessary.Unit2CommunicativePrinciplesandActivities1.Teaching Aims:To discuss one of the most important trends in second/ foreign language teachingin the past three decades, that is the practice of communicative language teaching2.Teaching Content:1) Language use in real life vs. traditional pedagogy2) Fostering communication competence3) The implementation of language skills4)Communicativeactivities5) Conclusion How do we learn language?3. Teaching Hours: 2 periods4. Teaching materials:1)Textbook2)Handout3)Vediotape4) Pictures and real objects5.Teaching Methods:1) Lecture (Computer-aided Instruction)2)Demonstration6.TeachingProcedures1) Where does communicative language teaching come from?Its origins are many, insofar as one teaching methodology tends to influence thenext. The communicative approach could be said to be the product of educators andlinguists who had grown dissatisfied with the audiolingual and grammar-translationmethods of foreign language instruction. They felt that students were not learningenough realistic, whole language. They did not know how to communicate usingappropriate social language, gestures, or expressions; in brief, they were at a loss tocommunicate in the culture of the language studied. Interest in and development ofcommunicative-style teaching mushroomed in the 1970s; authentic language useand classroom exchanges where students engaged in real communication with oneanother became quite popular.8
8 the target language can be learned through the use of the imperative. 3) Never force students to speak before they are ready. Asher believes that as the target language is internalized, speaking will automatically emerge (you must decide, as the teacher, when YOU will encourage your students to participate orally in the classroom). 7.Homework: 1. What are difference between learning the first language and a foreign language? 2. What are the qualities of a good language teacher? To what extent have you got these qualities? What do you think you should do so as to become a good teacher in the future? 3. What are the qualities of good language learner? What do they suggest to language teaching? 8.Self-assessment: Because students are not familiar with these theroy on the language and view of the language, it is very difficult to help Ss understand it. So it requires T explain it in details with the help of clare illustration and examples by using vediotapes. To get students read more on linguistics and schools of language methors is also necessary. Unit 2 Communicative Principles and Activities 1.Teaching Aims: To discuss one of the most important trends in second/ foreign language teaching in the past three decades, that is the practice of communicative language teaching 2.Teaching Content: 1) Language use in real life vs. traditional pedagogy 2) Fostering communication competence 3) The implementation of language skills 4) Communicative activities 5) Conclusion How do we learn language? 3. Teaching Hours: 2 periods 4. Teaching materials: 1)Textbook 2)Handout 3)Vediotape 4) Pictures and real objects 5.Teaching Methods: 1) Lecture ( Computer-aided Instruction) 2)Demonstration 6.Teaching Procedures 1) Where does communicative language teaching come from? Its origins are many, insofar as one teaching methodology tends to influence the next. The communicative approach could be said to be the product of educators and linguists who had grown dissatisfied with the audiolingual and grammar-translation methods of foreign language instruction. They felt that students were not learning enough realistic, whole language. They did not know how to communicate using appropriate social language, gestures, or expressions; in brief, they were at a loss to communicate in the culture of the language studied. Interest in and development of communicative-style teaching mushroomed in the 1970s; authentic language use and classroom exchanges where students engaged in real communication with one another became quite popular
Intheinterveningyears,thecommunicativeapproachhasbeenadaptedtotheelementary, middle, secondary, and post-secondary levels, and the underlyingphilosophyhas spawned differentteaching methods known under a variety ofnames, including notional-functional, teaching for proficiency, proficiency-basedinstruction, and communicative language teaching.2) What is communicative language teaching?Communicativelanguageteachingmakesuseofreal-lifesituationsthatnecessitatecommunication.The teachersetsupa situation that students are likelytoencounterinreal life.Unliketheaudiolingualmethod of languageteaching,whichreliesonrepetition and drills, the communicative approach can leave students in suspense astothe outcome ofa class exercise,which will vary accordingto theirreactions andresponses.The real-life simulations change from day to day. Students'motivation tolearncomesfromtheirdesiretocommunicateinmeaningful waysaboutmeaningful topics.3) Whatare some examples of communicative exercises?In a communicative classroom for beginners, the teacher might begin by passingout cards, each witha different nameprinted on it.The teacher thenproceeds tomodelan exchange of introductions inthetargetlanguage:"GutenTag.Wieheissen Sie?" Reply:"Ich heisse Wolfie,"for example.Using a combination of thetarget language and gestures, the teacher conveys the task at hand,and gets thestudents to introduce themselves and ask their classmates for information. They arerespondinginGermantoaquestioninGerman.Theydonotknowtheanswersbeforehand, as they are each holding cards with their new identities written onthem;hence,there isan authenticexchangeofinformation.Laterduring theclass,as areinforcement listeningexercise,the studentsmightheararecordedexchangebetweentwoGermanfreshmenmeeting eachotherforthefirsttimeatthegymnasiumdoors.Thentheteachermightexplain,inEnglish,thedifferences among German greetings in various social situations. Finally, theteacher will explain some of the grammar points and structures used."Instructions to students."Listen to a conversation somewhere in a publicplace and be prepared to answer, in the target language, some generalquestions about what was said.1.Who was talking?2.Abouthowoldwerethey?3.Where were they when you eavesdropped?4. What were they talking about?5.What did they say?6.Did they become aware that you were listening to them?The exercise puts students in a real-worid listening situation where they must reportinformation overheard. Most likely they have an opinion of the topic, and a classdiscussion could follow, in the target language, about their experiences andviewpoints.Communicative exercises such as this motivate the students by treating topics of theirchoice, at an appropriately challenging level.Another exercise taken from the same source is forbeginning students ofSpanish. In "Listening for the Gist," students are placed in an everydaysituation where they must listen to an authentic text"Objective." Students listen to a passage to get general understanding of the topic ormessage."Directions."Havestudentslisten tothefollowingannouncementtodecidewhatthespeaker is promoting.9
9 In the intervening years, the communicative approach has been adapted to the elementary, middle, secondary, and post-secondary levels, and the underlying philosophy has spawned different teaching methods known under a variety of names, including notional-functional, teaching for proficiency, proficiency-based instruction, and communicative language teaching. 2) What is communicative language teaching? Communicative language teaching makes use of real-life situations that necessitate communication. The teacher sets up a situation that students are likely to encounter in real life. Unlike the audiolingual method of language teaching, which relies on repetition and drills, the communicative approach can leave students in suspense as to the outcome of a class exercise, which will vary according to their reactions and responses. The real-life simulations change from day to day. Students' motivation to learn comes from their desire to communicate in meaningful ways about meaningful topics. 3) What are some examples of communicative exercises? In a communicative classroom for beginners, the teacher might begin by passing out cards, each with a different name printed on it. The teacher then proceeds to model an exchange of introductions in the target language: "Guten Tag. Wie heissen Sie?" Reply: "Ich heisse Wolfie," for example. Using a combination of the target language and gestures, the teacher conveys the task at hand, and gets the students to introduce themselves and ask their classmates for information. They are responding in German to a question in German. They do not know the answers beforehand, as they are each holding cards with their new identities written on them; hence, there is an authentic exchange of information. Later during the class, as a reinforcement listening exercise, the students might hear a recorded exchange between two German freshmen meeting each other for the first time at the gymnasium doors. Then the teacher might explain, in English, the differences among German greetings in various social situations. Finally, the teacher will explain some of the grammar points and structures used. "Instructions to students." Listen to a conversation somewhere in a public place and be prepared to answer, in the target language, some general questions about what was said. 1. Who was talking? 2. About how old were they? 3. Where were they when you eavesdropped? 4. What were they talking about? 5. What did they say? 6. Did they become aware that you were listening to them? The exercise puts students in a real-world listening situation where they must report information overheard. Most likely they have an opinion of the topic, and a class discussion could follow, in the target language, about their experiences and viewpoints. Communicative exercises such as this motivate the students by treating topics of their choice, at an appropriately challenging level. Another exercise taken from the same source is for beginning students of Spanish. In "Listening for the Gist," students are placed in an everyday situation where they must listen to an authentic text. "Objective." Students listen to a passage to get general understanding of the topic or message. "Directions." Have students listen to the following announcement to decide what the speaker is promoting
"Passage." "Situacion ideal...Servicio de transporte al AeropuertoInternacional...Cuarenta y dos habitaciones de lujo, con aire acondicionado...Eleganterestaurante...defamainternacional."(The announcement can be read by the teacher or played on tape.) Then ask studentsto circle the letter of the most appropriate answer on their copy, which consists of thefollowing multiple-choice options:a.ataxiserviceb.a hotelc. an airportd.arestaurantGunter Gerngross, an English teacher in Austria, gives an example of how he makeshislessonsmorecommunicative.HecitesawidelyusedtextbookthatshowsEnglishchildren having a pet show. "Even when learners act out this scene creatively andenthusiastically,they do not reach the depth of involvement that is almost tangiblewhen they act out a short text that presents a family conflict revolving round thequestionofwhetherthechildrenshouldbeallowed tohaveapetornot"(Gerngross&Puchta,1984,p.92).Hecontinuestosaythatthecommunicativeapproach"putsgreatemphasisonlistening,whichimpliesanactivewilltotrytounderstand others.[This is] one of the hardest tasks to achieve because the children are used to listeningto the teacher but not to their peers. There are no quick, set recipes.4) How do the roles of the teacher and student change in communicative languageteaching?Teachers in communicative classrooms will find themselves talking less and listeningmore--becoming active facilitators of their students'learning (Larsen-Freeman, 1986).Theteachersetsuptheexercise,but becausethestudents'performanceisthegoal,theteachermuststepbackandobserve,sometimesactingasrefereeormonitor.Aclassroomduringacommunicativeactivityisfarfromquiet,however.Thestudentsdo most of the speaking, and frequently the scene of a classroom during acommunicative exercise is active, with students leaving their seats to complete a task.Becauseof theincreasedresponsibilitytoparticipate,studentsmayfind theygainconfidence in using the target language in general. Students are more responsiblemanagers of their own learning (Larsen-Freeman, 1986).4)ClassroomactivitiesPre-communicative activities aim to help pupils learn the language forms, withoutactually requiring them to perform communicative acts.They focus on accuracy.Communicative activities aim at the communication of meaning. They focus onfluency.Theypassfrom strictlyguidedtasksthroughsemi-guidedtofree-communicationtasks.1.FunctionalCommunicationActivities:themainpurposeoftheactivityisthatlearners should use the language they know in order to get meaning across aseffectively as possible. In the process of performing certain tasks pupils will:a. share information, e.g. pair/group tasks: following directions; pictureidentification; discovering differences; discovering missing information; arrangingpieces of information in sequences, communicating patterns and pictures,reconstructing storysequences,etc.b. use information, e.g. group tasks: pooling information, solving problems.2. Social Interaction Activities: the main purpose of this activity is to give the learnersan oppotunity to use the language in an appropriate social contex, to create variety ofsocial situations and relationships, e.g.pair/group tasks: conversations, simulationsand role-playing.LearnerRolePupils interact both with each other and the teacher.10
10 "Passage." "Situacion ideal.Servicio de transporte al Aeropuerto Internacional.Cuarenta y dos habitaciones de lujo, con aire acondicionado.Elegante restaurante.de fama internacional." (The announcement can be read by the teacher or played on tape.) Then ask students to circle the letter of the most appropriate answer on their copy, which consists of the following multiple-choice options: a. a taxi service b. a hotel c. an airport d. a restaurant Gunter Gerngross, an English teacher in Austria, gives an example of how he makes his lessons more communicative. He cites a widely used textbook that shows English children having a pet show. "Even when learners act out this scene creatively and enthusiastically, they do not reach the depth of involvement that is almost tangible when they act out a short text that presents a family conflict revolving round the question of whether the children should be allowed to have a pet or not" (Gerngross & Puchta, 1984, p. 92). He continues to say that the communicative approach "puts great emphasis on listening, which implies an active will to try to understand others. [This is] one of the hardest tasks to achieve because the children are used to listening to the teacher but not to their peers. There are no quick, set recipes. 4) How do the roles of the teacher and student change in communicative language teaching? Teachers in communicative classrooms will find themselves talking less and listening more-becoming active facilitators of their students' learning (Larsen-Freeman, 1986). The teacher sets up the exercise, but because the students' performance is the goal, the teacher must step back and observe, sometimes acting as referee or monitor. A classroom during a communicative activity is far from quiet, however. The students do most of the speaking, and frequently the scene of a classroom during a communicative exercise is active, with students leaving their seats to complete a task. Because of the increased responsibility to participate, students may find they gain confidence in using the target language in general. Students are more responsible managers of their own learning (Larsen-Freeman, 1986). 4) Classroom activities Pre-communicative activities aim to help pupils learn the language forms, without actually requiring them to perform communicative acts. They focus on accuracy. Communicative activities aim at the communication of meaning. They focus on fluency. They pass from strictly guided tasks through semi-guided to freecommunication tasks. 1. Functional Communication Activities: the main purpose of the activity is that learners should use the language they know in order to get meaning across as effectively as possible. In the process of performing certain tasks pupils will: a. share information, e.g. pair/group tasks: following directions; picture identification; discovering differences; discovering missing information; arranging pieces of information in sequences, communicating patterns and pictures, reconstructing story sequences, etc. b. use information, e.g. group tasks: pooling information, solving problems. 2. Social Interaction Activities: the main purpose of this activity is to give the learners an oppotunity to use the language in an appropriate social contex, to create variety of social situations and relationships, e.g. pair/group tasks: conversations, simulations and role-playing. Learner Role Pupils interact both with each other and the teacher