vIll Contents 13.5 Sandwich structures: hybrids of type 2 13.6 Lattices: hybrids of type 3 363 13.7 Segmented structures: hybrids of type 4 371 13. 8 Summary and conclusions 376 13.9 Further reading 376 14 Hybrid case studies 379 14.1 Introduction and synopsis 380 14.2 Designing metal matrix composites 14.3 Refrigerator walls 14.4 Connectors that do not relax their grip 14.5 Extreme combinations of thermal and electrical conduction 386 14.6 Materials for microwave-transparent enclosures 389 14.7 Exploiting anisotropy: heat spreading surfaces 391 14.8 The mechanical efficiency of natural materials 14.9 Further reading: natural materials 15 Information and knowledge sources for design 15.1 Introduction and synopsis 15.2 Information for materials and processes 403 15.3 Screening information: structure and sources 15.4 Supporting information: structure and sources 15.5 Ways of checking and 411 15.6 Summary and conclusions 415 15.7 Further reading 416 16 Materials and the environment 417 16.1 Introduction and synopsis 418 16.2 The material life cycle 418 16.3 Material and energy-consuming systems 16. 4 The eco-attributes of materials 422 16.5 Eco-selection 16.6 Case studies: drink containers and crash barriers 16.7 Summary and conclusions 435 16.8 Further reading 17 Materials and industrial design 17.1 Introduction and synopsis 17. 2 The requirements pyramid 17.3 Product character 442 17.4 Using materials and processes to create product personality nd conclusions 17.6 Further reading 18 Forces for change 18.1 Introduction and synopsis 18.2 Market-pull and science-push 18.3 Growing population and wealth, and market saturation 464
13.5 Sandwich structures: hybrids of type 2 358 13.6 Lattices: hybrids of type 3 363 13.7 Segmented structures: hybrids of type 4 371 13.8 Summary and conclusions 376 13.9 Further reading 376 14 Hybrid case studies 379 14.1 Introduction and synopsis 380 14.2 Designing metal matrix composites 380 14.3 Refrigerator walls 382 14.4 Connectors that do not relax their grip 384 14.5 Extreme combinations of thermal and electrical conduction 386 14.6 Materials for microwave-transparent enclosures 389 14.7 Exploiting anisotropy: heat spreading surfaces 391 14.8 The mechanical efficiency of natural materials 393 14.9 Further reading: natural materials 399 15 Information and knowledge sources for design 401 15.1 Introduction and synopsis 402 15.2 Information for materials and processes 403 15.3 Screening information: structure and sources 407 15.4 Supporting information: structure and sources 409 15.5 Ways of checking and estimating data 411 15.6 Summary and conclusions 415 15.7 Further reading 416 16 Materials and the environment 417 16.1 Introduction and synopsis 418 16.2 The material life cycle 418 16.3 Material and energy-consuming systems 419 16.4 The eco-attributes of materials 422 16.5 Eco-selection 427 16.6 Case studies: drink containers and crash barriers 433 16.7 Summary and conclusions 435 16.8 Further reading 436 17 Materials and industrial design 439 17.1 Introduction and synopsis 440 17.2 The requirements pyramid 440 17.3 Product character 442 17.4 Using materials and processes to create product personality 445 17.5 Summary and conclusions 454 17.6 Further reading 455 18 Forces for change 457 18.1 Introduction and synopsis 458 18.2 Market-pull and science-push 458 18.3 Growing population and wealth, and market saturation 464 viii Contents
18.4 Product liability and service provision 465 18.5 Miniaturization and multi-functionality 466 18.6 Concern for the environment and for the individua 467 18.7 Summary and conclusions 469 18.8 Further readins 469 ppendix a Useful solutions to standard problems ntroduction and synopsis 473 A1 Constitutive equations for mechanical response 474 A2 Moments of sections 476 A 3 Elastic bending of beams A 4 Failure of beams and panels A. 5 Buckling of columns, plates, and shells 482 A6 Torsion of shafts 484 A 7 Static and spinning disks A 8 Contact stresses 488 A 9 Estimates for stress concentrations A 10 Sharp cracks 49 11P1 sels A 12 Vibrating beams, tubes, and disks A 13 Creep and creep fracture 498 A 14 Flow of heat and matter 500 A 15 Solutions for diffusion equations 502 A 16 Further reading Appendix B Material indices 507 B. 1 Introduction and synopsi 508 B 2 Use of material indices 508 AppendixC Data and information for engineering materials 513 C 1 Names and applications: metals and alloys 514 C2 Names and applications: polymers and foams 515 C3 Names and applications: composites, ceramics, glasses, and natural materials 516 C 4 Melting temperature, Tm, and glass temperature, Tg 518 C5 Density, p 520 C6 Young's modulus, E C7 Yield strength, Oy, and tensile strength, ots 524 C8 Fracture toughness(plane-strain), KIc 526 C9 Thermal conductivity, A 528 C 10 Thermal expansion, a C 11 Approximate production energies and CO2 burden 532 C 12 Environmental resistance 534
18.4 Product liability and service provision 465 18.5 Miniaturization and multi-functionality 466 18.6 Concern for the environment and for the individual 467 18.7 Summary and conclusions 469 18.8 Further reading 469 Appendix A Useful solutions to standard problems 471 Introduction and synopsis 473 A.1 Constitutive equations for mechanical response 474 A.2 Moments of sections 476 A.3 Elastic bending of beams 478 A.4 Failure of beams and panels 480 A.5 Buckling of columns, plates, and shells 482 A.6 Torsion of shafts 484 A.7 Static and spinning disks 486 A.8 Contact stresses 488 A.9 Estimates for stress concentrations 490 A.10 Sharp cracks 492 A.11 Pressure vessels 494 A.12 Vibrating beams, tubes, and disks 496 A.13 Creep and creep fracture 498 A.14 Flow of heat and matter 500 A.15 Solutions for diffusion equations 502 A.16 Further reading 504 Appendix B Material indices 507 B.1 Introduction and synopsis 508 B.2 Use of material indices 508 Appendix C Data and information for engineering materials 513 C.1 Names and applications: metals and alloys 514 C.2 Names and applications: polymers and foams 515 C.3 Names and applications: composites, ceramics, glasses, and natural materials 516 C.4 Melting temperature, Tm, and glass temperature, Tg 518 C.5 Density, 520 C.6 Young’s modulus, E 522 C.7 Yield strength, y, and tensile strength, ts 524 C.8 Fracture toughness (plane-strain), K1C 526 C.9 Thermal conductivity, 528 C.10 Thermal expansion, 530 C.11 Approximate production energies and CO2 burden 532 C.12 Environmental resistance 534 Contents ix
x Contents Appendix d Information and knowledge sources for materials and processes D 1 Introdu 538 D2 Information sources for materials 538 D 3 Information for manufacturing processes D 4 Databases and expert systems in software D5 Additional useful internet sites D 6 Supplier registers, government organizations, standards and professional societies 555 Appendix E Exercises E1 Introduction to the exercises E 2 Devising conc E 3 Use of material selection charts E 4 Translation: constraints and objectives 562 E5 Deriving and using material indices 56 E6 Selecting processes E7 Multiple constraints and objectives E8 Selecting material and shape 587 E.9 Hybrid materials 594
Appendix D Information and knowledge sources for materials and processes 537 D.1 Introduction 538 D.2 Information sources for materials 538 D.3 Information for manufacturing processes 552 D.4 Databases and expert systems in software 553 D.5 Additional useful internet sites 554 D.6 Supplier registers, government organizations, standards and professional societies 555 Appendix E Exercises 557 E.1 Introduction to the exercises 558 E.2 Devising concepts 559 E.3 Use of material selection charts 559 E.4 Translation: constraints and objectives 562 E.5 Deriving and using material indices 565 E.6 Selecting processes 574 E.7 Multiple constraints and objectives 579 E.8 Selecting material and shape 587 E.9 Hybrid materials 594 Index 599 x Contents
Chapter I Introduction 10000BC5000BC01000150018001900 98019902000 Glassy Metals Steels ual Phase steels Control and 5t Microalloyed Steels Processing Super Alloys ZirconiumAlloys Pottery Ceramics glasses Suied cermets Ceramics Ceramics (a,e,. Psz etc 10000Bc5000BC010001500180019001940196019801990200020102020 DATE Chapter contents I I Introduction and synopsis 2 1. 2 Materials in design 2 1.3 The evolution of engineering materials 1. 4 Case study: the evolution of materials in vacuum cleaners 6 1.5 Summary and conclusions 1. 6 Further reading
10000BC 0 1000 1500 1800 1900 1940 1960 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 5000BC 10000BC 0 1000 1500 1800 1900 1940 1960 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 5000BC Gold Copper Bronze Iron Cast Iron Cast Iron Wood Skins Fibres Glues Rubber Straw-Brick Straw-Brick Paper Bakerlite Bakerlite Stone FlintPottery Pottery Glass Cement Refractories Refractories Portland Portland Cement Fused Silica PyroCeramics Ceramics Steels Alloy Steels Light Alloys Super Alloys Super Alloys Titanium Titanium Zirconium Zirconium Alloys etc Nylon PE PMMA Acrylics Acrylics PC PS PP Cermets Cermets Epoxies Epoxies Polyesters Polyesters Tough Engineering Tough Engineering Ceramics ( Al Ceramics ( Al2O3, Si3N4, PSZ etc ) , PSZ etc ) GFRP CFRP Kelvar-FRP Kelvar-FRP Composites Composites Metal-Matrix Metal-Matrix Ceramic Composites Ceramic Composites High Modulus High Modulus Polymers Polymers High Temperature High Temperature Polymers Polymers Development Slow: Development Slow: Mostly Quality Mostly Quality Control and Control and Processing Processing Glassy Metals Glassy Metals Al-Lithium Alloys Al-Lithium Alloys Dual Phase Steels Dual Phase Steels Microalloyed Steels Microalloyed Steels New Super Alloys New Super Alloys Gold Copper Bronze Iron Cast Iron Wood Skins Fibres Glues Rubber Straw-Brick Paper Bakerlite Stone FlintPottery Glass Cement Refractories Portland Cement Fused Silica PyroCeramics Steels Alloy Steels Light Alloys Super Alloys Titanium Zirconium Alloys etc Nylon PE PMMA Acrylics PC PS PP Cermets Epoxies Polyesters Tough Engineering Ceramics ( Al2O3, Si3N4, PSZ etc ) GFRP CFRP Kelvar-FRP Composites Metal-Matrix Ceramic Composites High Modulus Polymers High Temperature Polymers Development Slow: Mostly Quality Control and Processing Glassy Metals Al-Lithium Alloys Dual Phase Steels Microalloyed Steels New Super Alloys DATE Relative importance Polymers & elastomers Polymers & elastomers Composites Composites Ceramics & glasses Ceramics & glasses Metals Metals Chapter contents 1.1 Introduction and synopsis 2 1.2 Materials in design 2 1.3 The evolution of engineering materials 4 1.4 Case study: the evolution of materials in vacuum cleaners 6 1.5 Summary and conclusions 8 1.6 Further reading 8 Chapter 1 Introduction
2 Chapter I Introduction I Introduction and synopsis Design"is one of those words that means all things to all people. Every manufactured thing, from the most lyrical of ladies' hats to the greasiest of gearboxes, qualifies, in some sense or other, as a design. It can mean yet more Nature, to some, is Divine Design; to others it is design by Natural Selection. The reader will agree that it is necessary to narrow the field, at least a little This book is about mechanical design, and the role of materials in it Mechanical components have mass; they carry loads; they conduct heat and electricity; they are exposed to wear and to corrosive environments; they are made of one or more materials; they have shape; and they must be manu- factured. The book describes how these activities are related Materials have limited design since man first made clothes, built shelters, and waged wars. They still do. But materials and processes to shape them are developing faster now than at any previous time in history; the challenges and opportunities they present are greater than ever before. The book develops a trategy for confronting the challenges and seizing the opportunities 1.2 Materials in design Design is the process of translating a new idea or a market need into the detailed information from which a product can be manufactured. Each of its stages requires decisions about the materials of which the product is to be made and the process for making it. Normally, the choice of material is dictated by the design. But sometimes it is the other way round: the new product, or the evolution of the existing one, was suggested or made possible by the new material. The number of materials available to the engineer is vast: something ver 120,000 are at his or her(from here on"his"means both)disposal And although standardization strives to reduce the number, the continuing ppearance of new materials with novel, exploitable, properties expands the options further How, then, does the engineer choose, from this vast menu, the material best suited to his purpose? Must he rely on experience? In the past he did, passing on this precious commodity to apprentices who, much later in their lives, might assume his role as the in-house materials guru who knows all about the things the company makes. But many things have changed in the world of engineering design, and all of them work against the success of this model. There is the drawn-out time scale of apprentice- based learning. There is job mobility, meaning that the guru who is here today is gone tomorrow. and there is the rapid evolution of materials information, already mentioned. There is no question of the value of experience. But a strategy relying on experience-based learning is not in tune with the pace and re-dispersion of talent that is part of the age of information technology. We need a systematic
1.1 Introduction and synopsis ‘‘Design’’ is one of those words that means all things to all people. Every manufactured thing, from the most lyrical of ladies’ hats to the greasiest of gearboxes, qualifies, in some sense or other, as a design. It can mean yet more. Nature, to some, is Divine Design; to others it is design by Natural Selection. The reader will agree that it is necessary to narrow the field, at least a little. This book is about mechanical design, and the role of materials in it. Mechanical components have mass; they carry loads; they conduct heat and electricity; they are exposed to wear and to corrosive environments; they are made of one or more materials; they have shape; and they must be manufactured. The book describes how these activities are related. Materials have limited design since man first made clothes, built shelters, and waged wars. They still do. But materials and processes to shape them are developing faster now than at any previous time in history; the challenges and opportunities they present are greater than ever before. The book develops a strategy for confronting the challenges and seizing the opportunities. 1.2 Materials in design Design is the process of translating a new idea or a market need into the detailed information from which a product can be manufactured. Each of its stages requires decisions about the materials of which the product is to be made and the process for making it. Normally, the choice of material is dictated by the design. But sometimes it is the other way round: the new product, or the evolution of the existing one, was suggested or made possible by the new material. The number of materials available to the engineer is vast: something over 120,000 are at his or her (from here on ‘‘his’’ means both) disposal. And although standardization strives to reduce the number, the continuing appearance of new materials with novel, exploitable, properties expands the options further. How, then, does the engineer choose, from this vast menu, the material best suited to his purpose? Must he rely on experience? In the past he did, passing on this precious commodity to apprentices who, much later in their lives, might assume his role as the in-house materials guru who knows all about the things the company makes. But many things have changed in the world of engineering design, and all of them work against the success of this model. There is the drawn-out time scale of apprentice-based learning. There is job mobility, meaning that the guru who is here today is gone tomorrow. And there is the rapid evolution of materials information, already mentioned. There is no question of the value of experience. But a strategy relying on experience-based learning is not in tune with the pace and re-dispersion of talent that is part of the age of information technology. We need a systematic 2 Chapter 1 Introduction