INTRODUCTION scale and proportion of the various topics introduced some modern readers disproportionate digressions. The rigid, undeviating logic which Poe postulates the short story or poem has no application to the large-scale masterpieces of literature as we actually logical critics who have never themselves composed nv work of literary art to schoolmaster such creations by their own a priori canons of the logic and architec- tonic unity of co ition. Such speculations have made wild work of Homeric criticism. They have been Demosthenes On the Crown an virgil cism of the Republic or in support of unverifiable hypotheses about the order of composition of its ifferent books is sufficiently disposed of by the common sense of the passages which I have quoted below. a For the reader who intelligently follows the Cf. my review of Diesendruck's"Struktur und Cha 92s, Pp. 79f. " In the Introduction to the Republic, Jowet sociation of ideas and which does not inte general purpose. Goethe in conversation with Eckermann 6,182 d'ajouter qu'on plus larce aisi a un peut-etre est-il permis utre idee de la plus profonde ordinaire accepter, trop asservie a des canons d'ecole
INTRODUCTION scale and proportion of the various topics introduced, the justification and relevance of what may seem to some modern readers disproportionate digressions. The rigid, undeviating logic which Poe postulates for the short story or poem has no application to the large-scale masterpieces of literature as we actually find them. And it is the height of naivete for philological critics who have never themselves composed any work of literary art to schoolmaster such creations by their own a priori canons of the logic and architec- tonic unity of composition. Such speculations have made wild work of Homeric criticism. They have been appUed to Demosthenes On the Crotvn and Virgil's Aeneid. Their employment either in criti- cism of the Republic or in support of unverifiable hj^otheses about the order of composition of its different books is sufficiently disposed of by the common sense of the passages which I have quoted below." For the reader who intelligently follows the " Cf. my review of Diesendruck's " Struktur and Charakter des Platonischen Phaidros," Class. Phil. vol. xxiii., 1928, pp. 79 f. : " In the Introduction to the Republic, Jowett writes, ' Nor need anji;hing be excluded from the plan of a great work to which the mind is naturally led by the association of ideas and which does not interfere with the general purpose.' Goethe in conversation with Eckermann said on May 6, 1827, ' Da kommen sie und fragen, welche Idee ich in meinem Faust zu verkorpern gesucht. Als ob ich das selber wiisste und aussprechen konnte.' Or with more special application to the Phaedrus I may quote Bourguet's review of Raeder, ' Cet eniiemble, on pensera sans doute que M. Raeder a eu tort de le juger mal construit. Au lieu d'une imperfection d'assemblage, c'est le plan raeme que le sujet indiquait. Et peut-etre est-il permis d'ajouter qu'on arrive ainsi a une autre id^e de la composition, plus large et plus profonde, que celle qui est d'ordinaire acceptee, trop asservie a des canons d'ecole.'
INTRODUCTION main argument of the Republic, minor disproportion and irrelevancies disappear in the total impression of the unity and designed convergence of all its parts in a predetermined conclusion. If it pleases Plato to dwell a little longer than interests the modern reader on the ex tion of Homer(379 D-894), the regula tion of warfare between Greek states(469-471 c), the postulates of elementary logic (4S8-4S9), the pro- gramme of the higher education (521 ) and its ppositions(522-521), and the ustification of the banishment of the poets(595-608 c). criticism has only to note and accept the fact. Socrates constructs the indispensable minimum (869 D-E) of a state or city from the necessities of human life, food, shelter, clothing, the inability of the solated individual to provide for these needs and the rinciple of the division of labour. a Plato is aware that the historic origin of society is to be looked for aspect of the subject for the Lans.b The hypothetical, imple primitive state, which Glaucon stigmatizes as city of pigs (372 D), is developed into a normal odern society or city b cures Spencer s P to another(373-374). The luxurious and inflamed (372E) is then purged and purified by the eform of ordinary Greek education, c in which expurgation of Homer and Homeric mythology holds a place that may weary the modern reader but is not istic
INTRODUCTION main argument of the Republic, minor disproportions and irrelevancies disappear in the total impression of the unity and designed convergence of all its parts in a predetermined conclusion. If it pleases Plato to dwell a little longer than interests the modern reader on the expurgation of Homer (379 d-394)i the regulation of warfare between Greek states (469-471 c), the postulates of elementary logic (438-439), the pro- gramme of the higher education (521 fF.) and its psychological presuppositions (522-524), and the justification of the banishment of the poets (595-608 c), criticism has only to note and accept the fact. Socrates constructs the indispensable minimum (369 i>-e) of a state or city from the necessities of human Hfe, food, shelter, clothing, the inability of the isolated individual to provide for these needs and the principle of the division of labour." Plato is aware that the historic origin of society is to be looked for in the family and the clan. But he reserves this aspect of the subject for the Larvs.^ The hypothetical, simple primitive state, which Glaucon stigmatizes as a city of pigs (372 d), is developed into a normal modern society or city by the demand for customary luxuries, and by Herbert Spencer's principle of " tie multiplication of effects," one thing leading to another (373-374). The luxurious and inflamed city (372 e) is then purged and purified by the reform of ordinary Greek education," in which the expurgation of Homer and Homeric mythology holds a place that may weary the modern reader but is not " Cf. 369 B-372 c and my paper on " The Idea of Justice in Plato's Republic,'" The Ethical Record, January 1890. * 677 ff., 680 A-B ff. " Cf. my paper, " Some Ideals of Education in Plato's Republic," The Educational Bi-Monthly, February 1908
INTRODUCTION disproportionate to the importance of the matter for Plato's generation and for the Christian Fathers whe quote it almost entire. Luxury makes war unavoid able($78 E). The principle of division of labour (37+ B-E) is applied to the military class, who receiv a special education, and who, to secure the disin terested use of their power, a are subjected to g or to own property(416-417 In such a state the four cardinal virtues, the defini tions of which were vainly sought in the minor dia ogues, are easily seen to be realizations on a higher further provisionally assumed that the four cardinal virtues constitute and in some sort define goodness.c The wisdom of such a state resides predominant in the rulers (+9S): its bravery in the soldiers (429) who acquire from their education a fixed and settled right opinion as to what things are really to be feared. Its sobriety, moderation, and temperance (sophrosyne) are the willingness of all classes to accept this division of function (4S1 E). Its justice is the fulfilment of its own function by every class 138). A provisional psychology(435 c-D) discover in the human soul faculties corresponding to th three social classes(+35 E ff. ).d And the social and olitical definitions of these virtues are then seen to Cf my article, Plato and His Lessons for To-day, " "in As an ere is derived from a Pythagorean doctrine of the three lives. There is a con Philosophy. p.296,n2
INTRODUCTION disproportionate to the importance of the matter for Plato's generation and for the Christian Fathers who quote it almost entire. Luxury- makes war unavoidable (373 e). The principle of division of labour (374- b-e) is applied to the military class, who receive a special education, and who, to secure the disin- terested use of their power,'' are subjected to a Spartan disciphne and not permitted to touch gold or to own property (416-417). In such a state the four cardinal \irtues, the defini- tions of which were vainly sought in the minor dia- logues, are easily seen to be realizations on a higher plane of the principle of the di\ision of labour.^ It is further pro\-isionally assumed that the four cardinal \'irtues constitute and in some sort define goodness.*" The wisdom of such a state resides predominantlv in the rulers (428) : its bravery- in the soldiers (429), who acquire from their education a fixed and settled right opinion as to what things are reallv to be feared. Its sobriety, moderation, and temperance {sophrosyne) are the willingness of all classes to accept this di\ision of function (431 e). Its justice is the fulfilment of its own function by ever\' class (433). A pro\isional psychology (435 c-d) discovers in the human soul faculties corresponding to tfie three social classes (435 e ff.)."* And the social and poHtical definitions of these \-irtues are then seen to » Cf. my article, " Plato and His Lessons for To-day," in the Independent, vol. Ix., 1906, pp. -253-256. * Cf. 433, 443 c and Unity of Plato's Thought, pp. 15-16, • Cf. i-27 E with 449 a, and Gorgias, 507 c. •* There is no real evidence that this is derived from a Pythagorean doctrine of the three lives. There is a considerable recent literature that affirms it. It is enoush here to refer to Mr. A. E. Taylor's Plato, p. 281, and Burnet, Early Greek Philosophy', p. 296, n. 2. XV
INTRODUCTION fit the individual. Sobriety and temperance are the acceptance by every fa of this higher division of abour (++1-+12). Justice is the performance by ev faculty of its proper task(433 A-l with ++I D). Thes p definitions will stand the test of vulgar instance The man whose own soul is inherently just in this ideal sense of the word will also be just in the ordinary elations of life. He will not pick and steal and cheat and break his promises (442 E-+43 A). Justice in nan and state is health. It is as absurd to maintain that the unjust man can be happier than the just as it ould be to argue that the unhealthy man is happier than the healthy(+45 A). a Our problem is apparently It has been argued that this conclusion marks the end of a first edition of the Republic to which there are in anti here can be no pre for such an h hesis.b Plato's plan from the first presumably contemplated an ideal state governed by philosophers($+7 D), and there is distinct reference in the first four books to the necessity of securing the perpetuity of the reformed state by the superior intelligence of its rulers. c Cf. my paper on "The Idea of Good in Platos Republ litarian ethies diffe down as a and th thesis which Plato strains every nerve to ato's Thought, Classical October 1914
INTRODUCTION fit the individual. Sobriety and temperance are the acceptance by every faculty of this higher division of labour (441-442). Justice is the performance by every faculty of its proper task (433 a-b with 441 n). These definitions will stand the test of vulgar instances. The man whose own soul is inherently just in this ideal sense of the word will also be just in the ordinary relations of life. He will not pick and steal and cheat and break his promises (442 e-443 a). Justice in man and state is health. It is as absurd to maintain that the unjust man can be happier than the just as it would be to argue that the unhealthy man is happier than the healthy (445 a)." Our problem is apparently solved. It has been argued that this conclusion marks the end of a first edition of the Republic to which there are vague references in antiquity. There can be no proof for such an hypothesis.'' Plato's plan from the first presumably contemplated an ideal state governed by philosophers (347 d), and there is distinct reference in the first four books to the necessity of securing the perpetuity of the reformed state by the superior intelligence of its rulers.*^ " Cf. my paper on " The Idea of Good in Plato's Republic,'' University of Chicago Studies in Classical Philology, vol. i. p. 194 : " Utilitarian ethics differs from the evolutionist, says Leslie Stephen ... in that ' the one lays down as a criterion the happiness, the other the health of the society. . . .' Mr. Stephen adds, ' the two are not really divergent,' and this is the thesis which Plato strains every nerve to prove throughout the Republic and Laws." * Cf. infra, p. xxv, note b. ' Cf. 412 A with 429 a, 497 c-d, 502 d. Cf. also the •* longer way," 435 d with 504 b-c, and further. The Unity of Plato's Thought, note 650, and the article " Plato's Laws and the Unity of Plato's Thought," Classical Philology, October 1914
INTRODUCTION The transition at the beginning of the fifth book is quite in Plato's manner and recalls the transition in the Phaedo(84 c) to a renewal of the discussion of im mortality. Here Glaucon and Adeimantus, as there Simmias and Cebes, are conversing in low tones an are challenged by Socrates to speak their mind openly 419 B). They desire a fuller explanation and justit cation of the paradox, too lightly let fall by Socrates that the guardians will have all things in common rates, after some demur, undertakes to expound this and in general the pre tion of the ideal state under the continued metaphor of three waves of paradox. They are (1)the exercise of the nen and women(457 A 458 to 457):(2) the community of wives(457 c);(s) (which is the condition of the realization of all these ideals) the postulate that either philosophers must become kings or kings philosophers. The discussion of these topics and the dig ressions which they suggest give to this transitional book ar appearance of confusion which attention to the cl of the three waves of paradox and the distinction between the desirability and the possibility of the Utopia contemplated will remove, a The last few pages of the book de deprecate prevailing prejudice against th hers and prepare the r会rthe ther education in Books VI and VII by distinguishing from the man pretenders the true philosophers who are those wh are lovers of ideas, capable of appreciating them, and able to reason in abstractions, b Whatever the meta- C.452E,457c,457 458A-B,461 6D,471c, 472D,473c-D C.474B,475DE.477-40
INTRODUCTION The transition at the beginning of the fifth book is quite in Plato's manner and recalls the transition in the Phaedo (84< c) to a renewal of the discussion of immortality. Here Glaucon and Adeimantus, as there Simmias and Cebes, are conversing in low tones and are challenged by Socrates to speak their mind openly (449 b). They desire a fuller explanation and justifi- cation of the paradox, too hghtly let fall by Socrates, that the guardians will have all things in common, including wives and children (449 c, cf. 424 a). Socrates, after some demur, undertakes to expound this topic and in general the pre-conditions of the realiza- tion of the ideal state under the continued metaphor of three waves of paradox. They are (1) the exercise of the same functions by men and Avomen (457 a, 453 to 457) ; (2) the community of wives (457 c) ; (3) (which is the condition of the realization of all these ideals) the postulate that either philosophers must become kings or kings philosophers. The discussion of these topics and the digressions which they suggest give to this transitional book an appearance of confusion which attention to the clue of the three waves of paradox and the distinction between the desirabiUty and the possibility of the Utopia contemplated will remove." The last few pages of the book deprecate prevailing prejudice against the philosophers and prepare the way for the theory and description of the higher education in Books VI and VH by distinguishing from the many pretenders the true philosophers who are those who are lovers of ideas, capable of appreciating them, and able to reason in abstractions.^ Whatever the meta- « Cf. 452 E, 457 c, 457 d-e, 458 a-b, 461 e, 466 d, 471 c, 472 D, 473 c-D. » Cf. 474 b, 475 d-e. 477-4S0. 479 a-b