OVERVIEW OF MUSHROOM CULTIVATION AND UTILIZATION AS FUNCTIONAL FOODS There is no single reference work in which all mushrooms are illustrated or n most ca o s o eaytoidnifymayoIn fact,theresgreat number of ookikeTo avoid any unpleasant experiences,especially when identifying mushrooms for the pur of determining edibility,experts should always be consulted (Quimic Collectors should always remember when using keys that the mushroom they have in hand might not be included in the book they are consulting(or in any othe d a name with a key,they iy If the de not fit the pecimen,then the must go back to the key and try again.following a different route.If they exhaust all of the possible routes and still cannot find a description that fits,the y should that th ngus in har ng th be available or they ma of specialists working with theg in question.They should never attempt to force a specimen into a category where it does not fit ome mush tely there tinguishing between the poisonous and edible species.The only means by which a nonspecialist can dete the en mushroom is on ma om at the neric level is inad a given genus (e.g.Lepiota)some species are edible while not a ear until8-12 hours after inge ing.Some less poisonous mushrooms produce ly nausea pset within 30- 0 minutes of ingestion (Hall et al,2003 Qu If you are not absolutely sure whether a given mushroom is edible or otherwise.do not touch it.Leave the strange mushroom alone. 1.3 CONCEPT OF MUSHROOM BIOLOGY AND APPLIED MUSHROOM BIOLOGY 1.3.1 Mushroom Biology The biological science that is concerned with fungi is called mycology.Mushroom biology is the branch of mycology that deals with mushrooms in many disciplines
6 OVERVIEW OF MUSHROOM CULTIVATION AND UTILIZATION AS FUNCTIONAL FOODS There is no single reference work in which all mushrooms are illustrated or described. In most cases, mushroom species in publications are grouped by region or locality, for example, North American mushrooms, mushrooms of the Western Hemisphere, and mushrooms of South Africa. While certain mushrooms are easy to identify, many are not. In fact, there is a great number of look-alikes. To avoid any unpleasant experiences, especially when identifying mushrooms for the purpose of determining edibility, experts should always be consulted (Quimio et al., 1990). Collectors should always remember when using keys that the mushroom they have in hand might not be included in the book they are consulting (or in any other book, for that matter). Once they have obtained a name with a key, they must read the detailed description provided for the mushroom and compare it with the one they are trying to identify. If the description does not fit the specimen, then they must go back to the key and try again, following a different route. If they exhaust all of the possible routes and still cannot find a description that fits, they should assume that the fungus in hand is not in the books being consulted. Using the information gained, they may then consult other appropriate references that may be available or they may seek the assistance of specialists working with the group in question. They should never attempt to force a specimen into a category where it does not fit. Some mushrooms are very palatable due to their exotic taste, but some mushrooms are very poisonous. Unfortunately, there are no general guidelines for distinguishing between the poisonous and edible species. The only means by which a nonspecialist can determine the edibility or toxicity of a given mushroom is to carry out an accurate identification of the specimen. Such identification may be obtained by consulting the relevant literature, preferably with illustrations, or experts in the subject. Identification of a mushroom at the generic level is inadequate since, within a given genus (e.g., Lepiota) some species are edible while other species are highly poisonous. Several species of Amanita are extremely poisonous, but obvious symptoms do not appear until 8–12 hours after ingestion. The poisonous compound, amatoxin, is not destroyed by boiling or processing. Some less poisonous mushrooms produce only nausea or gastric upset within 30–60 minutes of ingestion (Hall et al., 2003a; Quimio et al., 1990). Mushrooms partially eaten by animals or insects are not necessarily fit for human consumption. When the mushroom is in doubt, throw it out. If you are not absolutely sure whether a given mushroom is edible or otherwise, do not touch it. Leave the strange mushroom alone. 1.3 CONCEPT OF MUSHROOM BIOLOGY AND APPLIED MUSHROOM BIOLOGY 1.3.1 Mushroom Biology The biological science that is concerned with fungi is called mycology. Mushroom biology is the branch of mycology that deals with mushrooms in many disciplines
CONCEPT OF MUSHROOM BIOLOGY AND APPLIED MUSHROOM BIOLOGY 7 plant pathology (e.g..bacteria,algae,and insects)and/or an approach mushroom have been used,and each of these has its merit,when we get down to 是小 of defin ogy,and genetics. 1.3.2 Applied Mushroom Biology mushroom bio echnology (Chang. 1993), and mush oom bioremediati (u with m om c biologv/microbiology ersion/com stins and environmental engineering (Figure 1.3):Mushroom biotechnology is concerned with mushroom rivatives)and encompasse nd as the basi mushroom products,requires industrial development.It like many bioscience n Figure 1.2 Applied mushroom biology consists of three components:mushroom science, mushroom biotechnology,and mushroom bioremediation
CONCEPT OF MUSHROOM BIOLOGY AND APPLIED MUSHROOM BIOLOGY 7 When knowledge increases and areas of specialization develop within the discipline, it is convenient to indicate that area of specialization with a self-explanatory name. In biology, there are such specializations as neurobiology, bacteriology, plant pathology, pomology, molecular biology, virology, fungal physiology, embryology, endocrinology, phycology, and entomology. These names indicate either a group of organisms (e.g., bacteria, algae, and insects) and/or an approach to the study (e.g., disease, development, and physiology). Although several terms for this important branch of mycology that deals with mushroom have been used, and each of these has its merit, when we get down to the matter of definitions, it seems that there is a place for a new term—mushroom biology (Chang and Miles, 1992). Mushroom biology is a new discipline concerned with any aspect of the scientific study of mushrooms, such as taxonomy; physiology, and genetics. 1.3.2 Applied Mushroom Biology Applied mushroom biology is concerned with all aspects of the application of mushroom biology. It consists of three main components: mushroom science, mushroom biotechnology (Chang, 1993), and mushroom bioremediation (Figure 1.2). Mushroom science deals with mushroom cultivation and production (mushrooms themselves) and encompasses the principles of mushroom biology/microbiology, bioconversion/composting technology, and environmental engineering (Figure 1.3); Mushroom biotechnology is concerned with mushroom products (mushroom derivatives) and encompasses the principles of mushroom biology/microbiology, fermentation technology, and bioprocess (Figure 1.4). Mushroom biotechnology, both as a technology and as the basis for new mushroom products, requires industrial development. It, like many bioscience Mushroom Science Mushroom Bioremediation APPLIED MUSHROOM BIOLOGY Mushroom Biotechnology Figure 1.2 Applied mushroom biology consists of three components: mushroom science, mushroom biotechnology, and mushroom bioremediation
OVERVIEW OF MUSHROOM CULTIVATION AND UTILIZATION AS FUNCTIONAL FOODS MgoS9 SCIENCE Figure 1.3 Mushroom science:concerned with mushroom cultivation and production Bioprocessing developed in recent years.This is mushroom bioremediation and is concemed encompasses principle Therefore.the ims of the discipe mushroom 1.2) are to tackle the three basic problems-shortage of food,diminishing quality of
8 OVERVIEW OF MUSHROOM CULTIVATION AND UTILIZATION AS FUNCTIONAL FOODS Mushroom Biology MUSHROOM SCIENCE Compost Technology Environmental Technology Figure 1.3 Mushroom science: concerned with mushroom cultivation and production. Mushroom Biology Bioprocessing MUSHROOM BIOTECHNOLOGY Fermentation Technology Figure 1.4 Mushroom biotechnology: concerned with mushroom products (mushroom nutriceuticals/dietary supplements). industries, operates at the cutting edge of science and involves numerous regulatory issues. The third component of applied mushroom biology has been developed in recent years. This is mushroom bioremediation and is concerned with the beneficial impacts of mushrooms on the environment (from mushroom mycelia) and encompasses principles of mushroom biology/microbiology, ecology, and bioconversion technology (Figure 1.5). Therefore, the aims of the discipline of applied mushroom biology (Figure 1.2) are to tackle the three basic problems—shortage of food, diminishing quality of
CONCEPT OF MUSHROOM BIOLOGY AND APPLED MUSHROOM BIOLOGY 9 o Ecology Figure 15 Mushroom bioremediation:concemed with beneficial impacts of mushrooms human health,and pollution of the environment-which human beings still face hecontinue to face.due to the continued increase of the world populaton h a world popula 02050 from the current6.7 billion with most of the rowth occurrin in developin coun tries.The growing world population is increasing by about 80 million people pe year.At present,a in the world are living in poverty.n th muroom bioogy notoetthhuei into humn food but also n produce notable lth hat have nt aspect comg the Th of well-being- -food,health,and pollution that is co cerned with the principles nd practice of mushr ment of pr cinle sy systematic investigation must involve the practical aspects of mushroom cultiva tion as well as scientific studies.The consistent production of successful mush- room crops necessitates both practical experience and scientific knowledge 1.3.3 Impact of Applied Mushroom Biology 1.3.3.1 Nongreen Revolution The world population has reached over 6 billion now.It is expected to continue increasing in the twenty-first century
CONCEPT OF MUSHROOM BIOLOGY AND APPLIED MUSHROOM BIOLOGY 9 Mushroom Biology Bioconversion Technology MUSHROOM BIOREMEDIATION Ecology Figure 1.5 Mushroom bioremediation: concerned with beneficial impacts of mushrooms on environment. human health, and pollution of the environment—which human beings still face, and will continue to face, due to the continued increase of the world population. The twentieth century began with a world population of 1.6 billion and ended with 6 billion inhabitants. The world’s population is likely to reach 9.2 billion in 2050 from the current 6.7 billion with most of the growth occurring in developing countries. The growing world population is increasing by about 80 million people per year. At present, about 900 million people in the world are living in poverty. On the other hand, it has been observed that over 70% of agricultural and forest products have not been put to total productivity and have been discarded as waste. Applied mushroom biology not only can convert these huge lignocellulosic biomass wastes into human food but also can produce notable nutriceutical products that have many health benefits. Another significant aspect of applied mushroom biology is using the biota in creating a pollution-free and beneficial environment. The three components of applied mushroom biology are closely associated with three aspects of well-being—food, health, and pollution. The discipline that is concerned with the principles and practice of mushroom cultivation is known as mushroom science (Chang and Miles, 1982). The establishment of principles requires facts arrived at through systematic investigation. The systematic investigation must involve the practical aspects of mushroom cultivation as well as scientific studies. The consistent production of successful mushroom crops necessitates both practical experience and scientific knowledge. 1.3.3 Impact of Applied Mushroom Biology 1.3.3.1 Nongreen Revolution The world population has reached over 6 billion now. It is expected to continue increasing in the twenty-first century
10 OVERVIEW OF MUSHROOM CULTIVATION AND UTILIZATION AS FUNCTIONAL FOODS The amount of food and the level of medical care available to each individual. especially those in less developed countries,will decrease.Environmenta use gas effects will al erous problem that,like solare gy,is sustainable.Lign cellulosic material is a kind of biomass which is estimated toamount to 1.09x10tdry matter on land annually (Chang hemicellulose The eld o majo Since such a large amount of energy is in lignocellulosic biomass (3020 EJ solar energy fixed in biomass per year).it can constitute principal objects for conversion sby man's activities.Note that E is the metric prefix for exa energy. been develoned to utilize pant of the vas quantities of waste lignocellulose generated annually through the activities of gricultural,forestry.and food processing industries,one of the most significant. value product from the waste. the cultiv mushrooms by sof on h of these mushrooms produce a range of metabolites of intense interest to the pharmaceutical/nutriceutical (e.g..antitumor,immunomodulation agents, n 100 (e.g compounds)industries e ugh th of n esis to organic matter as green plants do,but they can produce extensive enzymes that can degrade lignocellulosic mate rials for their own nutrients for growth mu have in the nant Ge ligninases)required for substrate bioconversion.For example.L edodes.which is cultivated on highly lignified substrates such as wood or sawdust,produce wo extra elutar enzym that have ed with lgnin depolyn onverselv..which prefers high-cellulose. low lignin containi substrates,produces a family of cellulolytic degrading enzymes,including at leas five cellobiohydro B-glucosidases et al m,ex most adaptable of the three species.It can grow on a wide variety of a icultura waste materials of differing composition in terms of the polysaccharide-lignin ratio. This demon ates the impressive capacities of mus which fromp rooms for biosynthesi .The solid fermentati ogy into the hig protein consume directy in the form of the mushroom fruiting body but also can convert food
10 OVERVIEW OF MUSHROOM CULTIVATION AND UTILIZATION AS FUNCTIONAL FOODS The amount of food and the level of medical care available to each individual, especially those in less developed countries, will decrease. Environmental pollution and greenhouse gas effects will also become a more serious problem. However, the world has an immense amount of lignocellulosic material resource that, like solar energy, is sustainable. Lignocellulosic material is a kind of biomass which is estimated to amount to 1:09 ð 1011 t dry matter on land annually (Chang, 1989), which consists of mainly three components: cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Lignocellulose is a major component of wood and other plant materials. The world’s annual yield of cereal straws in 1999 is estimated to be 3570 ð 106 t. Since such a large amount of energy is in lignocellulosic biomass (3020 EJ solar energy fixed in biomass per year), it can constitute principal objects for conversion into useful products by man’s activities. Note that E is the metric prefix for exa (1018) and joule is the unit of energy. Although various strategies have been developed to utilize part of the vast quantities of waste lignocellulose generated annually through the activities of agricultural, forestry, and food processing industries, one of the most significant, in terms of producing a higher value product from the waste, is the cultivation of edible mushrooms by solid-state fermentation. More recently, attention has focused on a second area of exploitation following the discovery that many of these mushrooms produce a range of metabolites of intense interest to the pharmaceutical/nutriceutical (e.g., antitumor, immunomodulation agents, and hypocholesterolemic agents), and food (e.g., flavor compounds) industries. Mushrooms, like all other fungi, lack chlorophyll and are nongreen organisms. They cannot convert solar energy through the process of photosynthesis to organic matter as green plants do, but they can produce extensive enzymes that can degrade lignocellulosic materials for their own nutrients for growth and fruiting. Different mushrooms have different lignocellulolytic enzyme profiles (Buswell and Chang, 1994; Buswell et al., 1996b). These are reflected in qualitative variations in the major enzymatic determinants (i.e., cellulases, ligninases) required for substrate bioconversion. For example, L. edodes, which is cultivated on highly lignified substrates such as wood or sawdust, produces two extracellular enzymes that have been associated with lignin depolymerization in other fungi (manganese peroxidase and laccase) (Buswell et al., 1995). Conversely, V. volvacea, which prefers high-cellulose, low-lignin-containing substrates, produces a family of cellulolytic degrading enzymes, including at least five endoglucanases, five cellobiohydrolases, and two þ-glucosidases (Cai et al., 1994, 1998, 1999). Pleurotus sajor-caju, the grey oyster mushroom, exhibits both cellulase and ligninase secretions (Buswell et al., 1996a) and therefore is the most adaptable of the three species. It can grow on a wide variety of agricultural waste materials of differing composition in terms of the polysaccharide–lignin ratio. This demonstrates the impressive capacities of mushrooms for biosynthesis, which is different from photosynthesis by green plants. The species of mushroom fungi not only can convert the agricultural and forestry lignocellulosic wastes through solid fermentation technology into the high-quality protein consumed directly in the form of the mushroom fruiting body but also can convert food