investment and costly engineering solutions.As a result reforms such as catchment management authorities.Burkina faso. are being introduced to address the following(Batley 2004): Ghana,Zimbabwe,South Africa,Zambia,Swaziland,Malawi, Alter pricing structures so that they reflect real costs; Uganda,Kenya and the United Republic of Tanzania are Increase the focus on water management over water supply; some of the countries,where governments have devolved Reduce the role of government to that of policy-maker and water management authority to local structures,including regulator; urban areas(Manzungu 2002).In Zimbabwe the Water Ac Place bulk water supply in a public corporation free of civil of 1976,which largely provided for the interests of large- service controls; scale commercial farming,was replaced by a new water act in Encourage private financing of investment;and 1998,and management authority decentralized to catchmen Further decentralise water delivery. councils(Manzungu 2002).Through IWRM,the focus of water resources management is broadened for water use,planning The water sector reforms seek to deal with the mismatch between and watershed management,to include all related practices resource abundance and human settlements (Gumbo and such as agriculture,forestry and urban planning. others 2005);to address historical inequalities(Robinson 2002). to manage water resource stock depletion and degradation Despite its positive intents of equity,efficiency and (Mbaiwa 2004);and,to acknowledge water as a human right. sustainability,the IWRM concept also has challenges.Not all The reforms are also a result of better understanding of the governments are willing to devolve power,and rural dwellers connection between water,ecosystems and urbanisation.They are at times suspicious of the motives behind reforms.In the include approaches to improve water resources management;to urban areas efforts to fully recover costs have been met with draw water from alternative sources;and to manage watersheds civil society resistance.For example,in 2007 Egypt witnessed for better water quality and greater yields 40 civil society protests,which were partly driven by high costs of water(National Council for Services and Social Development IMPROVING WATER RESOURCES 2007).Swatuk(2007)argues that some countries have not MANAGEMENT been able to speedily reform their water sectors because the new water architecture proposes a profound realignment of In shifting focus from water supply to water management decision-making power in already fragile states. two approaches are emerging across some cities in Africa,an these are Integrated Water Resources Management(IWRM) WATER DEMAND MANAGEMENT and Water Demand Management(WDM). Water sector reforms have also seen the successful application of Water Demand Management initiatives in ome urban INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT areas (Gumbo and others 2o05).Water Demand Management ed as a.process that promotes the co-ordinated includes the estimation of potential savings,which can be developme management of water,land and related made by redi ing the amount of water that is wasted.This can resources in order to maximise the economic and social be controlled by pricing mechanisms,and technical regulatory welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems (GWP 2000).Integrated and stment in infrastructure to reduce leakages. Water Resources Management (IWRM)has seen new Demand Management has been accepted in Abidjan,Accra,Addis institutional arrangements and legislation for the water Ababa,Dakar,Johannesburg,Lusaka and Nairobi as the cheapest sector.Through institutional reforms governments have form of augmenting supply at both utility and national policy devolved power to local stakeholders,creating structures making levels (UN-HABITAT undated).At the national policy level,the willingness to invest in Water Demand Management 3.UN Resolutior m easures has led to the incorporation of water demand principles on water as a human right:Everyone has the right to and practices into the regulatory frameworks of countries such the hea I no one as zambia.national regulators used the lusaka water demand of water due to individua economic circumstance Management strategy as a model for developing a national Water 19
19 investment and costly engineering solutions. As a result reforms are being introduced to address the following (Batley 2004): • Alter pricing structures so that they reflect real costs; • Increase the focus on water management over water supply; • Reduce the role of government to that of policy-maker and regulator; • Place bulk water supply in a public corporation free of civil service controls; • Encourage private financing of investment; and • Further decentralise water delivery. The water sector reforms seek to deal with the mismatch between resource abundance and human settlements (Gumbo and others 2005); to address historical inequalities (Robinson 2002), to manage water resource stock depletion and degradation (Mbaiwa 2004); and, to acknowledge water as a human right.3 The reforms are also a result of better understanding of the connection between water, ecosystems and urbanisation. They include approaches to improve water resources management; to draw water from alternative sources; and to manage watersheds for better water quality and greater yields. IMPROVING WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT In shifting focus from water supply to water management, two approaches are emerging across some cities in Africa, and these are Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) and Water Demand Management (WDM). INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT Defined as a process that promotes the co-ordinated development and management of water, land and related resources in order to maximise the economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems (GWP 2000), Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) has seen new institutional arrangements and legislation for the water sector. Through institutional reforms governments have devolved power to local stakeholders, creating structures such as catchment management authorities. Burkina Faso, Ghana, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Zambia, Swaziland, Malawi, Uganda, Kenya and the United Republic of Tanzania are some of the countries,where governments have devolved water management authority to local structures, including urban areas (Manzungu 2002). In Zimbabwe the Water Act of 1976, which largely provided for the interests of largescale commercial farming, was replaced by a new water act in 1998, and management authority decentralized to catchment councils (Manzungu 2002). Through IWRM, the focus of water resources management is broadened for water use, planning and watershed management, to include all related practices such as agriculture, forestry and urban planning. Despite its positive intents of equity, efficiency and sustainability, the IWRM concept also has challenges. Not all governments are willing to devolve power, and rural dwellers are at times suspicious of the motives behind reforms. In the urban areas efforts to fully recover costs have been met with civil society resistance. For example, in 2007 Egypt witnessed 40 civil society protests, which were partly driven by high costs of water (National Council for Services and Social Development 2007). Swatuk (2007) argues that some countries have not been able to speedily reform their water sectors because the new water architecture proposes a profound realignment of decision-making power in already fragile states. WATER DEMAND MANAGEMENT Water sector reforms have also seen the successful application of Water Demand Management initiatives in some urban areas (Gumbo and others 2005). Water Demand Management includes the estimation of potential savings, which can be made by reducing the amount of water that is wasted. This can be controlled by pricing mechanisms, and technical regulatory measures such as better management of catchments, recycling and investment in infrastructure to reduce leakages. Water Demand Management has been accepted in Abidjan, Accra, Addis Ababa, Dakar, Johannesburg, Lusaka and Nairobi as the cheapest form of augmenting supply at both utility and national policymaking levels (UN-HABITAT undated). At the national policy level, the willingness to invest in Water Demand Management measures has led to the incorporation of water demand principles and practices into the regulatory frameworks of countries such as Zambia. National regulators used the Lusaka Water Demand Management strategy as a model for developing a national Water 3. UN Resolution on water as a human right: Everyone has the right to clean and accessible water, adequate for the health and well-being of the individual and family, and no one shall be deprived of such access or quality of water due to individual economic circumstance
Demand Management strategy.In Ghana,the water restructuring secretariat introduced Water Demand Management in the regulatory framework and in the national water policy.In Johannesburg Wate Demand Management generated sufficient savings in water demand to justify the cancellation of a project to build an additional water reservoir,while in Addis Ababa,despite a growing population and drought,demand management resulted in a USD 1.6 million savings to the government per year(UN-HABITAT undated). IMPROVING WATER QUALITY AND YIELDS Payment for Ecosystem Services(PES)seeks to improve water quality and yields through better management of watersheds.PES is a management strategy,which focuses on maintaining the flow of an ecosystem service such as clean water,biodiversity habitat or carbon sequestration capabilities in exchange for something of economic value.In Africa PES activities are still at conceptual stages,with few exceptions such as the Lesotho Highlands Water Project in which communities in lesotho are reimbursed by the downstream water users in the industrial Gauteng region of South Africa for the provision of watershed protection services.While South Africa pays about USD 2 million per vear for water from lesotho.the greatest benefit to the communities is the improved livelihoods of the Lesotho Highlands communities through better agricultural output from irrigated farming as well as access to alternative energy to firewood through the o MW of hydro-electricity(Santho and Gemmil undated). Dar es Salaam,which faces water shortages as a result of decreasing flows and poor water quality in the Ruvu River,is mulling a payments for watershed services initiative.Under this initiative communities living in the river's upstream catchments in the Uluguru Mountains will receive incentives from the major industries in Dar es Salaam in retur for better farming methods and reduced deforestati n which threaten vital hydrological functions performed by healthy forest ecosystems.The initiative envisions developing a market for watershed services in which beneficiaries ofbetter river health,mainly industry,will 'buy'services produced by land managers in the water catchment.Besides illustrating the PES approach,the initiative also provides an opportunity to explore how public-private partnerships could work in Tanzania(Riddington and Scholler 2006). ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF WATER Through rainwater harvesting,groundwater access and desalinisation. some cities are making efforts to ensure adequate water supplies 20
20 Demand Management strategy. In Ghana, the water restructuring secretariat introduced Water Demand Management in the regulatory framework and in the national water policy. In Johannesburg Water Demand Management generated sufficient savings in water demand to justify the cancellation of a project to build an additional water reservoir, while in Addis Ababa, despite a growing population and drought, demand management resulted in a USD 1.6 million savings to the government per year (UN-HABITAT undated). IMPROVING WATER QUALITY AND YIELDS Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) seeks to improve water quality and yields through better management of watersheds. PES is a management strategy, which focuses on maintaining the flow of an ecosystem service such as clean water, biodiversity habitat or carbon sequestration capabilities in exchange for something of economic value. In Africa PES activities are still at conceptual stages, with few exceptions such as the Lesotho Highlands Water Project in which communities in Lesotho are reimbursed by the downstream water users in the industrial Gauteng region of South Africa for the provision of watershed protection services. While South Africa pays about USD 2 million per year for water from Lesotho, the greatest benefit to the communities is the improved livelihoods of the Lesotho Highlands communities through better agricultural output from irrigated farming as well as access to alternative energy to firewood through the 110 MW of hydro-electricity (Santho and Gemmil undated). Dar es Salaam, which faces water shortages as a result of decreasing flows and poor water quality in the Ruvu River, is mulling a payments for watershed services initiative. Under this initiative communities living in the river’s upstream catchments in the Uluguru Mountains will receive incentives from the major industries in Dar es Salaam in return for better farming methods and reduced deforestation, which threaten vital hydrological functions performed by healthy forest ecosystems. The initiative envisions developing a market for watershed services in which beneficiaries of better river health, mainly industry, will ‘buy’ services produced by land managers in the water catchment. Besides illustrating the PES approach, the initiative also provides an opportunity to explore how public-private partnerships could work in Tanzania (Riddington and Scholler 2006). ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF WATER Through rainwater harvesting, groundwater access and desalinisation, some cities are making efforts to ensure adequate water supplies
Rainwater harvesting is promoted and implemented in urban areas for a variety of reasons.In Port Harcourt,water supplies have been diminishing due to limited capacity by the central government.This has spurred house-owners to invest in rainwater harvesting for household consumption. The increased use of rainwater harvesting provides additiona water supply and reduces pressures of demand on surrounding surface and groundwater resources. Access to groundwater through boreholes is widespread but largely unmonitored in Africa.In Nairobi,there is a growing demand for groundwater,which is tapped through boreholes. Desalinisation is not widely used as an alternative source of water.Algeria,through the Hamma Seawater Desalinatior Plant,is one country that uses desalinised water(Ondrey 2008) CASE STUDIES sanitation are concerned.As the case studies in this publication demonstrate,the following are some common water and sanitation issues in African cities Cities are depending more on external ecosystems for their water supplies; Alterative sources of water such as rainwater harvesting and groundwater are growing in use and importance; There isagrowing role by the private sector in complementing government efforts in the delivery of urban water supply and sanitation: m of urban water is being reformed in view in economic development and growing environmental awareness;and The plight of the urban poor is known,but there are few pro-poor initiatives to improve their access to water and sanitation service. The case studies present urban water challenges in African cities,and highlight approaches adopted to reduce the impacts of urbanisation on water and ecosystems.The case studies discuss urbanisation characteristics f the respective cities,state and trends of water withdrawals and demand, environmental impacts of bulk water supply and wastewater discharge,and lessons for policy
21 Rainwater harvesting is promoted and implemented in urban areas for a variety of reasons. In Port Harcourt, water supplies have been diminishing due to limited capacity by the central government. This has spurred house-owners to invest in rainwater harvesting for household consumption. The increased use of rainwater harvesting provides additional water supply and reduces pressures of demand on surrounding surface and groundwater resources. Access to groundwater through boreholes is widespread but largely unmonitored in Africa. In Nairobi, there is a growing demand for groundwater, which is tapped through boreholes. Desalinisation is not widely used as an alternative source of water. Algeria, through the Hamma Seawater Desalination Plant, is one country that uses desalinised water (Ondrey 2008). CASE STUDIES Africa’s cities are highly diverse, and as such they face unique challenges in as far as access to improved drinking water and sanitation are concerned. As the case studies in this publication demonstrate, the following are some common water and sanitation issues in African cities: • Cities are depending more on external ecosystems for their water supplies; • Alternative sources of water such as rainwater harvesting and groundwater are growing in use and importance; • There is a growing role by the private sector in complementing government efforts in the delivery of urban water supply and sanitation; • Management of urban water is being reformed in view of changes in economic development and growing environmental awareness; and • The plight of the urban poor is known, but there are few pro-poor initiatives to improve their access to water and sanitation service. The case studies present urban water challenges in African cities, and highlight approaches adopted to reduce the impacts of urbanisation on water and ecosystems. The case studies discuss urbanisation characteristics of their respective cities, state and trends of water withdrawals and demand, environmental impacts of bulk water supply and wastewater discharge, and lessons for policy
22
URBANIZATION.WATER AND ECOSYSTEMS:THE CASE OF NAIROBI David N.Mungai and Samuel O.Owuor Founded as a railway station in 1899,Nairobi is the largest city in Kenya covering an area of 696 km2(UN-HABITAT 2oIo).The city accounts for 6o per cent of Kenya's Gross Domestic Product(Ndorongo undated,Mungai and others 2or). ETHIOPIA As Kenya rapidly urbanises,Nairobi's share of the country's urban population increased from per cent in to per cent in 2009(GOK 1966,1971,1981,1994,2002,2oIo). The annual urban growth rate for Kenya increased to a high ofairobi continues to have the largest share of the urban population in the country.The city's population increased from 9 ooo in 1948 to 3.I million people in 2009(GOK 1966. 1971,1981,1994,2002,2oIo).Despite its large population, Nairobi recently witnessed a decline in its growth rate.This r's indicates the emergence and importance of small and medium- size urban centres in the country. It is estimated that half of Kenya's population will be living in urban areas by 2o15.Urban growth,combined with urban sprawl,has overwhelmed the capacity of local authorities to provide the increasing urban populatior with adequate facilities and services,including water and sanitation ANZANIA Msane Wanors would like to thank Philp Gichuki,Mbutu Mwaura
23 Founded as a railway station in 1899, Nairobi is the largest city in Kenya covering an area of 696 km2 (UN-HABITAT 2010). The city accounts for 60 per cent of Kenya’s Gross Domestic Product (Ndorongo undated, Mungai and others 2011). David N. Mungai and Samuel O. Owuor4 URBANIZATION, WATER AND ECOSYSTEMS: THE CASE OF NAIROBI As Kenya rapidly urbanises, Nairobi’s share of the country’s urban population increased from 5.2 per cent in 1948 to 32.4 per cent in 2009 (GOK 1966, 1971, 1981, 1994, 2002, 2010). The annual urban growth rate for Kenya increased to a high of 7.7 per cent in 1979 but fell to 3.4 per cent in 1999 (GOK 1999). Nairobi continues to have the largest share of the urban population in the country. The city’s population increased from 119 000 in 1948 to 3.1 million people in 2009 (GOK 1966, 1971, 1981, 1994, 2002, 2010). Despite its large population, Nairobi recently witnessed a decline in its growth rate. This indicates the emergence and importance of small and mediumsize urban centres in the country. It is estimated that half of Kenya’s population will be living in urban areas by 2015. Urban growth, combined with urban sprawl, has overwhelmed the capacity of local authorities to provide the increasing urban population with adequate facilities and services, including water and sanitation. Wajir Lake Turkana UGANDA ETHIOPIA SUDAN TANZANIA SOMALIA Narok Homa Bay Lokichokio Marsabit Habas Liboi Takaba North Horr Loiyangalani El Wak Lokwa Kangole Lokichar Archer’s Post Lokori Baragoi Kibwezi Mombasa Kakamega Kisumu Nakuru Kitale Embu Nyeri Nairobi Garissa Lamu Garsen Malindi 4. The authors would like to thank Philip Gichuki, Mbutu Mwaura, Msafiri Wambua and Paul Kinyua for providing the information used in preparing this case study and for providing useful comments on the first draft of the text