Slum population in urban Africa ● Tunisia Egypt Algeria Libya Nige Mali enegal Nigeria Chad Gambia Burk Guinea-Bissa Ethiopia Somalia Rwanda Sierra Leone d'lvoire Ghana ●Gab Benin Togo Equatorial Guinea Congo Total urban population by country DR Congo Million inhabitants,2005 Comoros Namibia Zimbabwe Angola Botswana Madagascar 0.5 ho as a group or South Africa -No data Source:UNDESA.The World Urbanisation Prospects.The 2009 Revision,2010. e.5.Security of tenure that prevents forced evictior
14 Slum population in urban Africa Zimbabwe Zambia Tanzania Uganda Togo Sudan South Africa Somalia Sierra Leone Senegal Rwanda Nigeria Niger Namibia Mozambique Morocco Algeria Mauritania Liberia Tunisia Libya Eritrea Djibouti Botswana Swaziland Mali Malawi Madagascar Lesotho Kenya Guinea-Bissau Guinea Ghana Gambia Gabon Ethiopia Equatorial Guinea Egypt DR Congo Côte d’Ivoire Congo Comoros Chad Central African Republic Cameroon Burundi Burkina Faso Benin Angola Million inhabitants, 2005 Total urban population by country Share of urban population living in slums No data 65 30 15 7 1 0.5 UN-HABITAT defines a slum household as a group of individuals living under the same roof in an urban area who lacks one or more of the following: 1. Durable housing of a permanent nature that protects against extreme climate conditions. 2. Sufficient living spaces, which means not more than three people sharing the same room. 3. Easy access to safe water in sufficient amounts at an affordable price. 4. Access to adequate sanitation in the form of a private or public toilet shared by a reasonable number of Source: UNDESA, The World Urbanisation Prospects, The 2009 Revision, 2010. people. 5. Security of tenure that prevents forced evictions
sources of freshwater supply for the urban areas.Peri-urban ecological differences are essential in understanding how areas oen have large open space that are used as dumpin urban areas access freshwater,and how they have become grounds for urban waste. ting water quality for some victims of their own waste. (Norstrom 2007). Some major urban areas such as Johannesburg,Lusaka,Harare HYDROLOGICAL FEATURES OF URBAN AREAS and Nairobi are located on plateaus at over 9oo m above sea level.These cities are located on watersheds with low stream Africa's urban centres are located in areas of different flows.As these urban areas grew,the need for more reliable and topography,climate,physical features and precipitation.These secure water supply led to their drawing water from reservoirs downstream,but the How of waste into the water supply sources Figure 3:A major challenge with urbanisation in Africa is became a problem.As a result some rivers such as the Crocodile the growing population of slum dwellers,who account for 6o River in South Africa had an increase in mean annual flow due percent of Africa's total urban population.These informal areas to wastewater from Johannesburg(Magadza 2003).Some water bodies supplying these cities have become eutrophic,including and disposal Lake Chivero near Harare and Lake Victoria(Magadza 2003)
15 sources of freshwater supply for the urban areas. Peri-urban areas often have large open space that are used as dumping grounds for urban waste, affecting water quality for some cities (Norström 2007). HYDROLOGICAL FEATURES OF URBAN AREAS Africa’s urban centres are located in areas of different topography, climate, physical features and precipitation. These ecological differences are essential in understanding how urban areas access freshwater, and how they have become victims of their own waste. Some major urban areas such as Johannesburg, Lusaka, Harare and Nairobi are located on plateaus at over 900 m above sea level. These cities are located on watersheds with low stream flows. As these urban areas grew, the need for more reliable and secure water supply led to their drawing water from reservoirs downstream, but the flow of waste into the water supply sources became a problem. As a result some rivers such as the Crocodile River in South Africa had an increase in mean annual flow due to wastewater from Johannesburg (Magadza 2003). Some water bodies supplying these cities have become eutrophic, including Lake Chivero near Harare and Lake Victoria (Magadza 2003). Figure 3: A major challenge with urbanisation in Africa is the growing population of slum dwellers, who account for 60 percent of Africa’s total urban population. These informal areas typically lack infrastructure for improved water and sanitation as well as capacity for garbage collection and disposal
Hydrological conditions have also had a bearing on the supply failure to protect and manage watersheds can result in reduced of adequate water and sanitation in African cities.While some cities are favoured with plentiful rainfall and surface wate .Ntaruka others are located in drought-prone areas.One example is Port and Mukungwa,fell by 68 per cent in the last two decades due Harcourt,which receives so much rainfall for nine months in to sedimentation(Safari oro).The degradation of the ecosystem a year that the water table,a major source of drinking water,is alsosaw the cost of energy perkWh increased from high but vulnerable to contamination.This city has potential 1997 to USD o.2o cents in 2005 (Andrew and Masozera 2o1o). for augmenting water supply through rainwater harvesting. While ecosystem services such as provisioning of clean water Other cities are located on peninsulas where the water is are a necessary basis for city growth,urbanisation can also saline.These include Conakry and Dakar whose sources of safe strain the same water ecosystems.In addition to siltation drinking water are now located further inland due to saltwate water bodies around some cities are polluted with high nutrien intrusion.Cities such as Abidjan,Cotonou,Lome,Freetown, levels mainly from peri-urban farming activities as well as from and Accra have neighbourhoods that are located in flood-prone domestic and industrial effluent discharges. areas,exposed to periodic high tides and storm surges.Prope disposal of sewage and supply of clean drinking water in such Untreated sewage effluent is one of the most common types areas are a chalenge.Still other cities such as Ouagadougou of pollution found around urban rivers and in groundwater Bamako,and Niamey are located in geological zo sources.Dar es Salaam,Accra,Khartoum,Harare,Maputo and yield from underground water sources is low(Collignon and Kampala discharge treated and untreated sewage into their Vezina 2ooo).In these areas investments in dam construction water bodies (Mangizvo 2009),causing eutrophication and and large water treatment plants are necessary. the proliferatio of wate weed such as the water hyacinth and water lettuce.The discharge of sewage into city water bodies Cities have failed to protectlocalecosystems as they have become is often compounded by spillages of raw sewage due to power masses of concrete,resulting in little groundv ater recharge ailures,pump or pipe failures At the same time demand has outstripped available water resources in some cities such as Johannesburg and Nouakchott Industrial and mining wastes are also dumped into water (Collignon and Vezina 2o00).As such it is ecoming mor bodies around urban areas.Industria waste is found in ocean expensive to draw water for cities from both surface and waters near major centres dotted along Africa's coastline underground sources,with some cities now accessing their including Dar es Salaam,Maputo,Durban,Cape Town,Walvis water through intra-basin water transfers. For example ,on Bay,Baia do Ca uaco and Luanda(Moyo and Mtetwa 2002). of Johannesburg's key water sources is the Lesotho Highlands Mining activities lead to the discharge of heavy metals such as Water project,which transfers water from the catchment area cadmium,lead and mercury into river systems and oceans.For of the Senqu/Orange River in Lesotho throu ugh an 82 km example,the Kafue River in Zambia deteriorates in quality as stretch of artificial water tunnels(International Rivers 2005).In it passes through the Copperbelt town of Kabwe due to mine Mauritania's city of Nouakchott water is drilled from boreholes waste discharges(Moyo and Mtetwa zo02) 5o km away,and the nearest freshw stream is 3oo km away (Collignon and Vezina 2000). The high demand for space for infrastructural development in urban areas has witnessed the disregard for the functions URBANISATION AND ECOSYSTEM and services offered by the environment.Wetlands in and DEGRADATION around cities.which function as a buffer against Hoods and neavy rainfall.as well as play a role in purifving water.have Residents of uban areas dependo on various for their livclhoods.For eample forestedsheds een taken up for eith construction of settlements and waste disposal.An example of this is the Bwaise wetlands of wetlands are important for urban water supplies,among othe Kampala,which have been encroached by expanding slums, services.Sedimentation caused by poor land uses and the general but experience severe flooding as a result(NEMA 2009) 6
16 Hydrological conditions have also had a bearing on the supply of adequate water and sanitation in African cities. While some cities are favoured with plentiful rainfall and surface water, others are located in drought-prone areas. One example is Port Harcourt, which receives so much rainfall for nine months in a year that the water table, a major source of drinking water, is high but vulnerable to contamination. This city has potential for augmenting water supply through rainwater harvesting. Other cities are located on peninsulas where the water is saline. These include Conakry and Dakar whose sources of safe drinking water are now located further inland due to saltwater intrusion. Cities such as Abidjan, Cotonou, Lomé, Freetown, and Accra have neighbourhoods that are located in flood-prone areas, exposed to periodic high tides and storm surges. Proper disposal of sewage and supply of clean drinking water in such areas are a challenge. Still other cities such as Ouagadougou, Bamako, and Niamey are located in geological zones where yield from underground water sources is low (Collignon and Vèzina 2000). In these areas investments in dam construction and large water treatment plants are necessary. Cities have failed to protect local ecosystems as they have become masses of concrete, resulting in little groundwater recharge. At the same time demand has outstripped available water resources in some cities such as Johannesburg and Nouakchott (Collignon and Vèzina 2000). As such it is becoming more expensive to draw water for cities from both surface and underground sources, with some cities now accessing their water through intra-basin water transfers. For example, one of Johannesburg’s key water sources is the Lesotho Highlands Water project, which transfers water from the catchment area of the Senqu/Orange River in Lesotho through an 82 km stretch of artificial water tunnels (International Rivers 2005). In Mauritania’s city of Nouakchott water is drilled from boreholes 50 km away, and the nearest freshwater stream is 300 km away (Collignon and Vèzina 2000). URBANISATION AND ECOSYSTEM DEGRADATION Residents of urban areas depend on various ecosystem services for their livelihoods. For example, forested watersheds and wetlands are important for urban water supplies, among other services. Sedimentation caused by poor land uses and the general failure to protect and manage watersheds can result in reduced capacity to generate hydropower. For example, the generation of electricity from two of Rwanda’s hydropower stations, Ntaruka and Mukungwa, fell by 68 per cent in the last two decades due to sedimentation (Safari 2010). The degradation of the ecosystem also saw the cost of energy per kWh increased from USD 0.075 in 1997 to USD 0.20 cents in 2005 (Andrew and Masozera 2010). While ecosystem services such as provisioning of clean water are a necessary basis for city growth, urbanisation can also strain the same water ecosystems. In addition to siltation, water bodies around some cities are polluted with high nutrient levels mainly from peri-urban farming activities as well as from domestic and industrial effluent discharges. Untreated sewage effluent is one of the most common types of pollution found around urban rivers and in groundwater sources. Dar es Salaam, Accra, Khartoum, Harare, Maputo and Kampala discharge treated and untreated sewage into their water bodies (Mangizvo 2009), causing eutrophication and the proliferation of water weeds such as the water hyacinth and water lettuce. The discharge of sewage into city water bodies is often compounded by spillages of raw sewage due to power failures, pump or pipe failures. Industrial and mining wastes are also dumped into water bodies around urban areas. Industrial waste is found in ocean waters near major centres dotted along Africa’s coastline, including Dar es Salaam, Maputo, Durban, Cape Town, Walvis Bay, Baia do Cacuaco and Luanda (Moyo and Mtetwa 2002). Mining activities lead to the discharge of heavy metals such as cadmium, lead and mercury into river systems and oceans. For example, the Kafue River in Zambia deteriorates in quality as it passes through the Copperbelt town of Kabwe due to mine waste discharges (Moyo and Mtetwa 2002) The high demand for space for infrastructural development in urban areas has witnessed the disregard for the functions and services offered by the environment. Wetlands in and around cities, which function as a buffer against floods and heavy rainfall, as well as play a role in purifying water, have often been taken up for either construction of settlements or waste disposal. An example of this is the Bwaise wetlands of Kampala, which have been encroached by expanding slums, but experience severe flooding as a result (NEMA 2009)
17
In order to curb urban pollution several approaches have been where the aim is to generate income out of water provision as attempted,including penalties through the Polluter Pays Principle well as to provide a social service.This is accomplished through (PPP).The PPP calls for corporate responsibility that requires a combination of tariffs,cost recovery and free basic water the polluter to take economic and environmental responsibility under which every household receives the first six cubic metres for wastes.Examples of PPP application in the water sector in Africa are few,bu indlude the payment for disposal of waste from tanneries in South Africa (McClean and others 2007). Not all urban dwellers have access to improved water and MANAGING URBAN WATER sanitation,hence there is an increase in informal entrepreneurs in the water and sanitation business to fill the gap in service Most current urban water management strategies are targeted provision by public setor water and sanitation stems.Many at supplying water with priority given to quantity and quality African governments are opposed to their activities due to thei This requires water supply infrastructure such as piped informal nature(Cudjoe and Okonski 2006). Urban authorities use a mix of incentives and penalties to promote collection of revenues from the provision of water services also water use efficiency through recycling and reuse,as well as access have to be set up. to alterative sources of water such as rainwater harvesting. Management of the water resources in africa falls under various URBAN WATER SECTOR REFORMS jurisdictions,including under the state,local authorities catchment councils or the private sector.Management In view of economic reforms,the urban water sector as emphasis,ranges from making a profit to providing a social managed by local authorities and central governments has seen service.One example of water management is in South Africa, unsustainable pricing.inequitable subsidies,inadequate public
18 In order to curb urban pollution several approaches have been attempted, including penalties through the Polluter Pays Principle (PPP). The PPP calls for corporate responsibility that requires the polluter to take economic and environmental responsibility for wastes. Examples of PPP application in the water sector in Africa are few, but include the payment for disposal of waste from tanneries in South Africa (McClean and others 2007). MANAGING URBAN WATER Most current urban water management strategies are targeted at supplying water, with priority given to quantity and quality. This requires water supply infrastructure such as piped systems for water and sewer reticulation, and the construction of storage reservoirs such as dams. Administrative units for the collection of revenues from the provision of water services also have to be set up. Management of the water resources in Africa falls under various jurisdictions, including under the state, local authorities, catchment councils or the private sector. Management emphasis, ranges from making a profit to providing a social service. One example of water management is in South Africa, where the aim is to generate income out of water provision as well as to provide a social service. This is accomplished through a combination of tariffs, cost recovery and free basic water under which every household receives the first six cubic metres per month for free, and the tariffs are gradually increased with greater usage (Government of South Africa 2005). Not all urban dwellers have access to improved water and sanitation, hence there is an increase in informal entrepreneurs in the water and sanitation business to fill the gap in service provision by public sector water and sanitation systems. Many African governments are opposed to their activities due to their informal nature (Cudjoe and Okonski 2006). Urban authorities use a mix of incentives and penalties to promote water use efficiency through recycling and reuse, as well as access to alternative sources of water such as rainwater harvesting. URBAN WATER SECTOR REFORMS In view of economic reforms, the urban water sector as managed by local authorities and central governments has seen unsustainable pricing, inequitable subsidies, inadequate public