《翻译与思辩》参考资料：Critical Thinking 9th edition（Brooke Noel Moore Richard Parker）

THE BASICS: CLAIMS, ISSUES AND ARGUMENTS Real Life The Ethanol scam? As we write this, the U.S. Senate has just passed an energy bill that mandates the produc. tion of 36 billion gallons of ethanol by the year 2022. This is seven times more than current roduction. Both Republican and Democratic senators boasted of the bill's contribution to environmental progress and the reduction of reliance on fossil fuels. The president enthusias. ically endorsed the legislation But ethanol doesn't burn cleaner than gasoline, nor is it less expensive. Currently, ethanol makes up 3. 5 percent of our gasoline consumption, although it consumes 20 percent of the country's corn crop. Even if all the corn in the United States were turned into ethanol, it could replace only 12 percent of the gasoline currently used We would have to convert great tracts of land that now produce food to the production of ethanol in order to make a real difference in gasoline consumption, but this would produce erious dislocations in the availability and price of food all over the world one of these problems are faced in the current ethanol bill. Sometimes critical think ing goes on vacation in Washington, D.C. A source from the Left:"The Ethanol Scam: One of Armerica's Biggest Political Boondoggles, by Jeff Goodell, Rolling Stone Magazine, Issue 1032, posted online July 24, 2007 A source from the Right Ethanols a Big Scam, and Bush Has Fallen for It, by Kevin Hassett, American Enterprise InstituteforPublicpOlicyResearch,ShortpUblications(<http://www.aei.org/publications/publd.23871,filter . all/pub_ detail. asp>). hear. But critiquing another person's ideas does not mean you are attacking The cool thing about being that person. It's not a put-down. Pointing out reasons for not eating VapoRub famous is traveling. I have isn't insulting Ross; if anything, it is trying to help him. Cases arise in which it always wanted to travel across would be dead wrong not to criticize another person's ideas. Not long ago, we seas, like to Canada and stu read about some teenagers who thought it would be neat to wind a rope around BRITINEY SPEARS a merry-go-round, then attach the other end to a pickup truck and drive off at com/quotes/britney_spears/ high speed while someone tried to hang on. They tried it, and one person was We did not make this upl hurled from the merry-go-round; afterward, the driver of the pickup faced a manslaughter charge. Was he entitled to his opinion that this was a good idea Of course not. Every one of us makes mistakes, and sometimes we need oth- ers to help us see them. We don't do a friend a favor by pretending his idea to open a tanning salon in Butte City is a good one. And we don't do ourselves any favors by not listening to others or by refusing to think critically about our own ideas THE BASICS: CLAIMS, ISSUES, AND ARGUMENTS In the next few pages, we'll introduce the basic building blocks of critical thinking: claims, issues, and arguments. Identifying these elements, including evaluating them are what critical thinking is all about Lets get started s and separating them out from embellishments and impostors and analyzin

Confi rming Pages hear. But critiquing another person’s ideas does not mean you are attacking that person. It’s not a put-down. Pointing out reasons for not eating VapoRub isn’t insulting Ross; if anything, it is trying to help him. Cases arise in which it would be dead wrong not to criticize another person’s ideas. Not long ago, we read about some teenagers who thought it would be neat to wind a rope around a merry-go-round, then attach the other end to a pickup truck and drive off at high speed while someone tried to hang on. They tried it, and one person was hurled from the merry-go-round; afterward, the driver of the pickup faced a manslaughter charge. Was he entitled to his opinion that this was a good idea? Of course not. Every one of us makes mistakes, and sometimes we need oth￾ers to help us see them. We don’t do a friend a favor by pretending his idea to open a tanning salon in Butte City is a good one. And we don’t do ourselves any favors by not listening to others or by refusing to think critically about our own ideas. THE BASICS: CLAIMS, ISSUES, AND ARGUMENTS In the next few pages, we’ll introduce the basic building blocks of critical thinking: claims, issues, and arguments. Identifying these elements, including separating them out from embellishments and impostors, and analyzing and evaluating them are what critical thinking is all about. Let’s get started. The cool thing about being famous is traveling. I have always wanted to travel across seas, like to Canada and stuff. — BRITNEY SPEARS Find it at: thinkexist .com /quotes /britney_spears / We did not make this up! The cool thing about being famous is traveling. I have always wanted to travel across seas, like to Canada and stuff. — BRITNEY SPEARS Find it at: thinkexist .com /quotes /britney_spears / We did not make this up! THE BASICS: CLAIMS, ISSUES, AND ARGUMENTS 5 As we write this, the U.S. Senate has just passed an energy bill that mandates the produc￾tion of 36 billion gallons of ethanol by the year 2022. This is seven times more than current production. Both Republican and Democratic senators boasted of the bill’s contribution to environmental progress and the reduction of reliance on fossil fuels. The president enthusias￾tically endorsed the legislation. But ethanol doesn’t burn cleaner than gasoline, nor is it less expensive. Currently, ethanol makes up 3.5 percent of our gasoline consumption, although it consumes 20 percent of the country’s corn crop. Even if all the corn in the United States were turned into ethanol, it could replace only 12 percent of the gasoline currently used. We would have to convert great tracts of land that now produce food to the production of ethanol in order to make a real difference in gasoline consumption, but this would produce serious dislocations in the availability and price of food all over the world. None of these problems are faced in the current ethanol bill. Sometimes critical think￾ing goes on vacation in Washington, D.C. A source from the Left: “The Ethanol Scam: One of America’s Biggest Political Boondoggles,” by Jeff Goodell, Rolling Stone Magazine, Issue 1032, posted online July 24, 2007. A source from the Right: Ethanol’s a Big Scam, and Bush Has Fallen for It, by Kevin Hassett, American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, Short Publications (<http: //www.aei.org /publications /pubID.23871,filter .all /pub_detail.asp>). Real Life The Ethanol Scam? moo86677_ch01_001-040.indd 5 6/17/08 10:31:21 AM

Claims A few paragraphs ago, when we were characterizing critical thinking, we men- tioned claims. Claims are basic elements in critical thinking; they are the things we say, aloud or in writing, to convey information-to express our opinions or beliefs. Claims have other employment, too, as we'll discover (see the box"Doing Things with Words"), but this is the use we re primarily con- cerned with. Claims, or statements these amount to the same thing, are the kinds of things that are true or false. " Columbus is the most populous city in Ohio"is a true claim; "Columbus has the most populous metropolitan area in Ohio"is a false claim( Cleveland's is bigger). "There is intelligent life on other planets"is either true or false, but at the moment we don't know which Once again, the examination and evaluation of claims, including their relationsh to each other, is the principal job of critical thinking The claims we investigate can be about anything, whether of modest interest or of earth-shaking importance. Claims about whether your toothpaste whitens your teeth, whether an ace-high flush beats a full house, whether a president should be impeached or a war begun-everything is fair game. This s true whether you or someone else has actually made the claim or is only considering it Many claims require little or no critical evaluation. They are so obvi- ously true (or false, as the case may be that nobody would see any need for a close examination. If you have a sore throat, you tend to know it without a lot of contemplation; whether Costco is still open requires only a phone call and not an investigation. But many claims can and should be given a close look and evaluation--claims about important personal decisions(Should you marry he person you're seeing? ) about societal matters (Should we have univer health care in this country? ) about the nature of the world (Do supernatu ral events sometimes happen? ) Some people hold offices in which their deci sions deeply affect others; perhaps the claims they make about such decisions should be given an especially high level of scrutiny Issues Now were getting to the heart of the matter. Whenever we call a claim into question-that is, when we ask questions about its truth or falsity-we raise an issue. Claims, construed as issues and supported (or not) by arguments are the central focus of critical thinking. The concept of an issue is very simple; an issue is nothing more than a question-in fact, we can use the two words interchangeably-the question is simply whether a given claim is true or not. Here are two ways of stating an issue: (1) Is Moore taller than Parker? (2 )Whether Moore is taller than Parker. We answer the question or settle the issue by determining whether the claim"Moore is taller than Parker"is true Another example: Presumably, the Virginia state senate didn't like the recent fashion trend of boys wearing their trousers low enough to show off their boxers, and they considered making it illegal to wear clothes that expose the wearers underwear In the Virginia senate, then, the claim"It should be illegal to wear clothes that expose underwear"was under considera we can put it thus: Whether it should be illegal to wear clothes that expose This issue is easily settled. Casual observation shows that it's true. Indeed, Moore is taller than nearly everybody

Confi rming Pages 6 CHAPTER 1 CRITICAL THINKING BASICS Claims A few paragraphs ago, when we were characterizing critical thinking, we men￾tioned claims. Claims are basic elements in critical thinking; they are the things we say, aloud or in writing, to convey information—to express our opinions or beliefs. Claims have other employment, too, as we’ll discover (see the box “ Doing Things with Words ”), but this is the use we’re primarily con￾cerned with. Claims, or statements (these amount to the same thing), are the kinds of things that are true or false. “Columbus is the most populous city in Ohio” is a true claim; “Columbus has the most populous metropolitan area in Ohio” is a false claim (Cleveland’s is bigger). “There is intelligent life on other planets” is either true or false, but at the moment we don’t know which. Once again, the examination and evaluation of claims, including their relationships to each other, is the principal job of critical thinking. The claims we investigate can be about anything, whether of modest interest or of earth-shaking importance. Claims about whether your toothpaste whitens your teeth, whether an ace-high flush beats a full house, whether a president should be impeached or a war begun—everything is fair game. This is true whether you or someone else has actually made the claim or is only considering it. Many claims require little or no critical evaluation. They are so obvi￾ously true (or false, as the case may be) that nobody would see any need for a close examination. If you have a sore throat, you tend to know it without a lot of contemplation; whether Costco is still open requires only a phone call and not an investigation. But many claims can and should be given a close look and evaluation—claims about important personal decisions (Should you marry the person you’re seeing?), about societal matters (Should we have universal health care in this country?), about the nature of the world (Do supernatu￾ral events sometimes happen?). Some people hold offices in which their deci￾sions deeply affect others; perhaps the claims they make about such decisions should be given an especially high level of scrutiny. Issues Now we’re getting to the heart of the matter. Whenever we call a claim into question—that is, when we ask questions about its truth or falsity—we raise an issue. Claims, construed as issues and supported (or not) by arguments, are the central focus of critical thinking. The concept of an issue is very simple; an issue is nothing more than a question—in fact, we can use the two words interchangeably—the question is simply whether a given claim is true or not. Here are two ways of stating an issue: (1) Is Moore taller than Parker? (2) Whether Moore is taller than Parker. We answer the question or settle the issue by determining whether the claim “Moore is taller than Parker” is true or false.* Another example: Presumably, the Virginia state senate didn’t like the recent fashion trend of boys wearing their trousers low enough to show off their boxers, and they considered making it illegal to wear clothes that expose the wearer’s underwear. In the Virginia senate, then, the claim “It should be illegal to wear clothes that expose underwear” was under consideration. Or we can put it thus: Whether it should be illegal to wear clothes that expose * This issue is easily settled. Casual observation shows that it’s true. Indeed, Moore is taller than nearly everybody. moo86677_ch01_001-040.indd 6 6/17/08 10:31:23 AM

HE BASICS: CLAIMS, ISSUES, AND ARGUMENTS On Language Doing Things with Words You should not get the idea from this chapter that the only important thing you can do with words is make claims or take positions on issues. You can do lots of other important things You can hypothesize, conjecture, suppose, and propose. You can amuse or entertain. You an try to persuade others(or yourself) of something or attempt to get them (or yourself) to do something. We use words to pray, promise, praise, and promote; to lie, deceive, insult, and humiliate: to excuse, comfort, and let off steam; and so on indefinitely. (Sometimes don't know what we are up to when we use words. )All these things are subject to critical thinking as to success, efficacy, completeness, legitimacy, authenticity, originality, clarity, and many other qualities. In this book, however, we focus primarily on the claim-making and argument-presenting functions of discourse and, to a lesser extent, on the hypothesizing and conjecturing functions Here are some examples of the many different things people do with words Red meat is not bad for you. Now, blue- green meat, that's bad for you. TOMMY SMOTHERS, amusing us I want to rush for 1,000 or 1, 500 yards, whichever comes first New Orleans Saints running back GEORGE ROGERS, expressing a desire I enjoyed reading your book and would look forward to reading something else you wrote if required to d E-mail from one of our students; we'd like to think this is praise, but Do not take this medication within two hours of eating. Caution note on some gunk one of us had to drink. It's warming us, but notice that you cant tell if you re not supposed to take the medication within two hours before eating or within two hours after eating or both. Whenever I watch TV and see those poor starving kids all over the world, I can't help but cry. I mean, I'd love to be skinny like that but not with all those flies and death and stuff. Attributed to MARIAH carey They know so little science that they dont realize how ridiculous they look to others MARILYN VOS SAVANT, offering her explanation of why people claim to be psychic It's due to the country's mixed ethnicity National Rifle Association president CHARLTON HESTON, explaining the count murder rate and making it clear he may not know too much about the i did not have sexual relations with that woman BILL CLINTON, telling a fib Osama bin Laden is either alive and well or alive and not too well or not alive Defense Secretary DoNALD RUMSFELD: beats us underwear was the issue before the Virginia senate. So remember, when we think critically about a claim, we call it into question and make it an issue As we'll see, in many real- life situations it is important and often dif ficult to identify exactly what claim is in question-exactly what the issue This happens for lots of different reasons, from purposeful obfuscation to " The senate finally dropped the bill. The reason that seemed to carry the most weight was that the law would make the legislature look silly. USA Today, February 11, 2005

Confi rming Pages underwear was the issue before the Virginia senate. * So remember, when we think critically about a claim, we call it into question and make it an issue. As we’ll see, in many real-life situations it is important and often dif￾ficult to identify exactly what claim is in question—exactly what the issue is. This happens for lots of different reasons, from purposeful obfuscation to * The senate finally dropped the bill. The reason that seemed to carry the most weight was that the law would make the legislature look silly. USA Today , February 11, 2005. THE BASICS: CLAIMS, ISSUES, AND ARGUMENTS 7 You should not get the idea from this chapter that the only important thing you can do with words is make claims or take positions on issues. You can do lots of other important things: You can hypothesize, conjecture, suppose, and propose. You can amuse or entertain. You can try to persuade others (or yourself) of something or attempt to get them (or yourself) to do something. We use words to pray, promise, praise, and promote; to lie, deceive, insult, and humiliate; to excuse, comfort, and let off steam; and so on indefinitely. (Sometimes we don’t know what we are up to when we use words.) All these things are subject to critical thinking as to success, efficacy, completeness, legitimacy, authenticity, originality, clarity, and many other qualities. In this book, however, we focus primarily on the claim-making and argument-presenting functions of discourse and, to a lesser extent, on the hypothesizing and conjecturing functions. Here are some examples of the many different things people do with words: Red meat is not bad for you. Now, blue-green meat, that’s bad for you. — TOMMY SMOTHERS, amusing us I want to rush for 1,000 or 1,500 yards, whichever comes first. — New Orleans Saints running back GEORGE ROGERS, expressing a desire I enjoyed reading your book and would look forward to reading something else you wrote if required to do so. — E-mail from one of our students; we’d like to think this is praise, but . . . Do not take this medication within two hours of eating. — Caution note on some gunk one of us had to drink. It’s warning us, but notice that you can’t tell if you’re not supposed to take the medication within two hours before eating or within two hours after eating or both. Whenever I watch TV and see those poor starving kids all over the world, I can’t help but cry. I mean, I’d love to be skinny like that but not with all those flies and death and stuff. — Attributed to MARIAH CAREY They know so little science that they don’t realize how ridiculous they look to others. — MARILYN VOS SAVANT, offering her explanation of why people claim to be psychic It’s due to the country’s mixed ethnicity. — National Rifle Association president CHARLTON HESTON, explaining the country’s high murder rate and making it clear he may not know too much about the subject I did not have sexual relations with that woman. — BILL CLINTON, telling a fib Osama bin Laden is either alive and well or alive and not too well or not alive. — Defense Secretary DONALD RUMSFELD; beats us On Language Doing Things with Words moo86677_ch01_001-040.indd 7 6/17/08 10:31:23 AM

Real Life Airline Sacrifices Goats to Appease Sky God KATHMANDU (Reuters)Officials at senior airline official, without explain- epal's state-run airline have sacri- ing what the problem had been ficed two goats to appease Akash Local media last week blamed the Bhairab, the Hindu sky god, following company's woes on an electrical fault. technical problems with one of its The carrier runs international flights Boeing 757 aircraft, the carrier said to five cities in Asia Tuesday It is common in Nepal to sacrific Nepal Airlines, which has two Boe- animals like goats and buffaloes to ing aircraft, has had to suspend some appease different Hindu deities services in recent weeks due to the problem Posted on Reuters Oddly Enough The goats were sacrificed in front News Web site, September 4, 2007 of the troublesome aircraft Sunday We've looked for an argument that at Nepal's only international airport would support the claim that sacrificing in Kathmandu in accordance with Hindu traditions. an official said goats enhances flight safety, but so far The snag in the plane has now without success. While we re not ones to een fixed and the aircraft has criticize the repair method of others, we resumed its flights, said Raju K. C, a still prefer mechanics ambiguous terminology to plain muddleheaded thinking. Have a look at this excerpt from the inaugural address of President Warren G. Harding, delivered on march 4. 1821 We have mistaken unpreparedness to embrace it to be a challenge of the reality and due concern for making all citizens fit for participation will give added strength of citizenship and magnify our achievement. Do you understand Hardings point? Neither does anybody else, because this is perfectly meaningless (American satirist H. L. Mencken described it as a "sonorous nonsense driven home with gestures. "" Understanding what i meant by a claim has so many aspects we'll have to devote a large part of hapter 3 to the subj Of course, there is no point in considering argument for and against a claim if you have no idea what would count toward its being true or false. Take, for example, the claim"There is an identical you who lives in a different dimen- sion. "What sort of evidence would support such a claim? What sort of evidence would support saying it is false? We have no idea (Almost any claim about dif ferent"dimensions"or"planes"or"parallel universes"would be apt to suffer from the same problem unless, possibly, the claim were to come from someone Reported on NBC News, Meet the Press, January 16, 2005

Confi rming Pages 8 CHAPTER 1 CRITICAL THINKING BASICS ambiguous terminology to plain muddleheaded thinking. Have a look at this excerpt from the inaugural address of President Warren G. Harding, delivered on March 4, 1821: We have mistaken unpreparedness to embrace it to be a challenge of the reality and due concern for making all citizens fit for participation will give added strength of citizenship and magnify our achievement. Do you understand Harding’s point? Neither does anybody else, because this is perfectly meaningless. (American satirist H. L. Mencken described it as a “sonorous nonsense driven home with gestures.”* ) Understanding what is meant by a claim has so many aspects we’ll have to devote a large part of Chapter 3 to the subject. Of course, there is no point in considering argument for and against a claim if you have no idea what would count toward its being true or false. Take, for example, the claim “There is an identical you who lives in a different dimen￾sion.” What sort of evidence would support such a claim? What sort of evidence would support saying it is false? We have no idea. (Almost any claim about dif￾ferent “dimensions” or “planes” or “parallel universes” would be apt to suffer from the same problem unless, possibly, the claim were to come from someone * Reported on NBC News, Meet the Press , January 16, 2005. Real Life Airline Sacrifices Goats to Appease Sky God KATHMANDU (Reuters)—Officials at Nepal’s state-run airline have sacri￾ficed two goats to appease Akash Bhairab, the Hindu sky god, following technical problems with one of its Boeing 757 aircraft, the carrier said Tuesday. Nepal Airlines, which has two Boe￾ing aircraft, has had to suspend some services in recent weeks due to the problem. The goats were sacrificed in front of the troublesome aircraft Sunday at Nepal’s only international airport in Kathmandu in accordance with Hindu traditions, an official said. “The snag in the plane has now been fixed and the aircraft has resumed its flights,” said Raju K. C., a senior airline official, without explain￾ing what the problem had been. Local media last week blamed the company’s woes on an electrical fault. The carrier runs international flights to five cities in Asia. It is common in Nepal to sacrifice animals like goats and buffaloes to appease different Hindu deities. — Posted on Reuters Oddly Enough News Web site, September 4, 2007 We’ve looked for an argument that would support the claim that sacrificing goats enhances flight safety, but so far without success. While we’re not ones to criticize the repair method of others, we still prefer mechanics. moo86677_ch01_001-040.indd 8 6/17/08 10:31:25 AM

THE BASICS: CLAIMS, ISSUES AND ARGUMENTS In Depth Legitimate Claims In the section on claims and issues, we noted that it is hardly worthwhile to be concerned about the truth or falsity of a claim if we don't know what its truth or falsity would amount to. Another way to say this is that we shouldn't wormy about claims that do not make sense If a claim does make sense-if it is a legitimate claim-then we understand the difference between its being true and its being false Carbostats always contain at least one gymflixle Since this sentence contains two words that have no meaning, it makes no sense to us to think of its being true or false. (What would we be thinking of? ) Here's another example of an illegitimate claim The color blue weighs more than four pounds Although all the words in this sentence have common meanings, the claim itself makes no sense because it tries to apply one concept(weight) to another concept(color) to which it cannot apply. We can measure the hue or intensity of a color, but we have no idea what would count as measuring its weight. So we've no idea what would count as this sentence's being true or false. We're talking about a literal interpretation of the claim, of course. There is nothing wrong with saying, "dark brown is a heavier color than yellow, as long as we mean it metaphorically-we're talking about how the colors look, not really about how much they weig The spirit filled his soul This claim, too, must be taken metaphorically, since it is difficult to understand what would count as someone's soul literally being filled by a spirit. well educated in physics. )"All is one"would qualify as well, as would Bertrand Russell's conundrum"The entire universe was created instantly five minutes ago with all our memories intact. "And how about"There is an invisible grem lin who lives inside my watch and works the alarm"? Claims with meanings that are obscure neednt be as metaphysical as the preceding examples. Senator Charles Grassley of lowa recently declared, It is human nature to desire freedom. "Well, sure. This sounds pretty good but when you look closely at it, it's hard to know just what he's talking about. What kind of data would support Grassley s claim or its opposite? This is not to imply that only claims subject to scientific test or the exper- imental method are worth discussing. Sometimes claims are made in contexts in which it is not important that they be true, as, for example, when one is telling a joke. Even when truth is paramount, a scientific test may not be neces- sary. Mathematical theorems are confirmed not via experimentation but rather as deductions from other mathematical propositions. Appearing in the bible would count as proof of a statement if you believe that the Bible is the revealed word of God, though doubters might press you on that. The point is that you need to have some idea about what counts for or against a claim's truth if you are to entertain it seriously, or if you expect others to take it seriously

Confi rming Pages well educated in physics.) “All is one” would qualify as well, as would Bertrand Russell’s conundrum “The entire universe was created instantly five minutes ago with all our memories intact.” And how about “There is an invisible grem￾lin who lives inside my watch and works the alarm”? Claims with meanings that are obscure needn’t be as metaphysical as the preceding examples. Senator Charles Grassley of Iowa recently declared, “It is human nature to desire freedom.” Well, sure. This sounds pretty good, but when you look closely at it, it’s hard to know just what he’s talking about. What kind of data would support Grassley’s claim or its opposite? This is not to imply that only claims subject to scientific test or the exper￾imental method are worth discussing. Sometimes claims are made in contexts in which it is not important that they be true, as, for example, when one is telling a joke. Even when truth is paramount, a scientific test may not be neces￾sary. Mathematical theorems are confirmed not via experimentation but rather as deductions from other mathematical propositions. Appearing in the Bible would count as proof of a statement if you believe that the Bible is the revealed word of God, though doubters might press you on that. The point is that you need to have some idea about what counts for or against a claim’s truth if you are to entertain it seriously, or if you expect others to take it seriously. THE BASICS: CLAIMS, ISSUES, AND ARGUMENTS 9 In the section on claims and issues, we noted that it is hardly worthwhile to be concerned about the truth or falsity of a claim if we don’t know what its truth or falsity would amount to. Another way to say this is that we shouldn’t worry about claims that do not make sense. If a claim does make sense—if it is a legitimate claim—then we understand the difference between its being true and its being false. Carbostats always contain at least one gymflixle. Since this sentence contains two words that have no meaning, it makes no sense to us to think of its being true or false. (What would we be thinking of?) Here’s another example of an illegitimate claim: The color blue weighs more than four pounds. Although all the words in this sentence have common meanings, the claim itself makes no sense because it tries to apply one concept (weight) to another concept (color) to which it cannot apply. We can measure the hue or intensity of a color, but we have no idea what would count as measuring its weight. So we’ve no idea what would count as this sentence’s being true or false. We’re talking about a literal interpretation of the claim, of course. There is nothing wrong with saying, “dark brown is a heavier color than yellow,” as long as we mean it metaphorically—we’re talking about how the colors look, not really about how much they weigh. The spirit filled his soul. This claim, too, must be taken metaphorically, since it is difficult to understand what would count as someone’s soul literally being filled by a spirit. In Depth Legitimate Claims moo86677_ch01_001-040.indd 9 6/17/08 10:31:27 AM