What Are the lssue and the conclusion? Now let's look at examples of a second kind of question What ought to be done about social security? Must we outlaw SUVs or face increasing rates of asthma? All of these questions demand answers suggesting the way the world ought to be. For example, answers to the first two questions might be, "Capital punish- ment should be abolished, " and"We ought to increase social security benefits. se issues are ethical, or moral is right or wrong, desirable or undesirable, good or bad. They demand pre scriptive answers. Thus, we will refer to these issues as prescriptive issues. Social controversies are often prescriptive issues We have somewhat oversimplified. Sometimes it will be difficult to decide what kind of issue is being discussed. It will be useful to keep these distinctions in mind, however, because the kinds of critical evaluations you eventually make will differ depending on the kind of issue to which you are responding Attention: Prescriptive issues are those that raise questions about what we should do or what is right or wrong, good or bad Searching for the Issue How does one go about determining the basic question or issue? Sometimes it is very simple: The writer or speaker will tell you what it is. Alternatively, the issue may be identified in the body of the text, usually right at the beginning, or it may even be found in the title. When the issue is explicitly stated, it will be indicated by phrases such as the following The question I am raising is: Why must we have speed limits on our highways? Lowering the legal drinking age: Is it the night thing to do Should sex education be taught in the schools? Unfortunately, the question is not always explicitly stated and instead must be inferred from other clues in the communication. For example, many writers or speakers are reacting to some current event that concerns them, such as a series of violent acts in schools. Asking " What is the author reacting to?" will often suggest the central issue of a communication. Another good
What Are the Issue and the Conclusion? 17 Now let's look at examples of a second kind of question: Should capital punishment be abolished? What ought to be done about social security? Must we outlaw SUVs or face increasing rates of asthma? All of these questions demand answers suggesting the way the world ought to be. For example, answers to the first two questions might be, "Capital punishment should be abolished," and "We ought to increase social security benefits." These issues are ethical, or moral, issues; they raise questions about what is right or wrong, desirable or undesirable, good or bad. They demand prescriptive answers. Thus, we will refer to these issues as prescriptive issues. Social controversies are often prescriptive issues. We have somewhat oversimplified. Sometimes it will be difficult to decide what kind of issue is being discussed. It will be useful to keep these distinctions in mind, however, because the kinds of critical evaluations you eventually make will differ depending on the kind of issue to which you are responding. Attention: Prescriptive issues are those that raise questions about what we should do or what is right or wrong, good or bad. Searching for the Issue How does one go about determining the basic question or issue? Sometimes it is very simple: The writer or speaker will tell you what it is. Alternatively, the issue may be identified in the body of the text, usually right at the beginning, or it may even be found in the title. When the issue is explicitly stated, it will be indicated by phrases such as the following: The question I am raising is: Why must we have speed limits on our highways? Lowering the legal drinking age: Is it the right thing to do? Should sex education be taught in the schools? Unfortunately, the question is not always explicitly stated and instead must be inferred from other clues in the communication. For example, many writers or speakers are reacting to some current event that concerns them, such as a series of violent acts in schools. Asking "What is the author reacting to?" will often suggest the central issue of a communication. Another good
Chapter 2 lue is knowledge of the author's background, such as organizations to which she belongs. So check for background information about the author as you try to determine the issue When you are identifying the issue, try to resist the idea that there is one and only one correct way to state the issue. Once you have found a question that the entire essay or speech is addressing, and you can show the link between that question and the essay or speech, you have found the issue. Just make cer- tain that what you are calling an issue meets the definitional criteria for that idea The surest way to detect an issue when it is not explicitly stated, however, is to locate the conclusion. In many cases, the conclusion must be found be- fore you can identify the issue. Thus, in such cases, the first step in critical eval uation is to find the conclusion-a frequently difficult step We cannot critically evaluate until we find the conclusion! et's see how we go about looking for that very important structural Attention: A conclusion is the message that the speaker or writer wishes you to accept Searching for the Author's or Speaker's Conclusion To identify the conclusion, the critical thinker must ask, What is the writer or speaker trying to prove? "or "What is the communicator's main po answer to either of these questions will be the conclusion. Any answer to the question provided by the speaker or writer will be the conclusion In searching for a conclusion, you will be looking for a statement or set of statements that the writer or speaker wants you to believe. She wants you to believe the conclusion on the basis of her other statements. In short the basic structure of persuasive communication or argument is: This because of that This refers to the conclusion; that refers to the support for the conclusion. This structure represents the process of inference Conclusions are inferred; they are derived from reasoning. Conclusi are ideas that require other ideas to support them. Thus, whenever someone claims something is true or ought to be done and provides no statements to support her claim, that claim is not a conclusion because no one has offered any basis for belief. In contrast, unsupported claims are what we refer to as mere opinions
18 Chapter 2 clue is knowledge of the author's background, such as organizations to which she belongs. So check for background information about the author as you try to determine the issue. When you are identifying the issue, try to resist the idea that there is one and only one correct way to state the issue. Once you have found a question that the entire essay or speech is addressing, and you can show the link between that question and the essay or speech, you have found the issue. Just make certain that what you are calling an issue meets the definitional criteria for that idea. The surest way to detect an issue when it is not explicitly stated, however, is to locate the conclusion. In many cases, the conclusion must be found before you can identify the issue. Thus, in such cases, the first step in critical evaluation is to find the conclusion—a frequently difficult step. We cannot critically evaluate until we find the conclusion! Let's see how we go about looking for that very important structural element. Attention: A conclusion is the message that the speaker or writer wishes you to accept. Searching for the Author's or Speaker's Conclusion To identify the conclusion, the critical thinker must ask, "What is the writer or speaker trying to prove?" or "What is the communicator's main point?" The answer to either of these questions will be the conclusion. Any answer to the question provided by the speaker or writer will be the conclusion. In searching for a conclusion, you will be looking for a statement or set of statements that the writer or speaker wants you to believe. She wants you to believe the conclusion on the basis of her other statements. In short, the basic structure of persuasive communication or argument is: This because of that. This refers to the conclusion; that refers to the support for the conclusion. This structure represents the process of inference. Conclusions are inferred; they are derived from reasoning. Conclusions are ideas that require other ideas to support them. Thus, whenever someone claims something is true or ought to be done and provides no statements to support her claim, that claim is not a conclusion because no one has offered any basis for belief. In contrast, unsupported claims are what we refer to as mere opinions
What Are the Issue and the Conclusion? The last paragraph says a lot. It would be a good idea for you to read it again. Understanding the nature of a conclusion is an essential step toward critical reading and listening. Let's look closely at a conclusion and at the inference process. Here is a brief paragraph; see whether you can identify the conclusion, then the statements that support it Factory farming should not be legal. There are other more natural ways to produce needed food supply Factory farming should not be legal. "This is the author's answer to the question: should factory farming be legalized? It is her conclusion. The author supports this belief with another: There are other more natural ways to pro- duce needed food supply Do you see why the supporting belief is not a conclusion? It is not conclusion because it is used to prove something else. Remember: To believe one statement (the conclusion) because you think it is well supported by other beliefs is to make an inference. When people engage in this process, they are reasoning; the conclusion is the outcome of this reasoning. Sometimes, communicators will not make their conclusions explicit; in is trying to prove by the set of ideas she has presented at you believe the author such cases you will have to infer the conclusion from wha USING THIS CRITICAL QUESTION Once you have found the conclusion, use it as the focus of your evaluation. It is the destination that the writer or speaker wants you to choose. Your ongoing concern is: Should I accept that conclusion on the basis of what is supporting the claim? Clues to Discovery: How to Find the Conclusion There are a number of clues to help you identify the conclusion CLUE NO. 1: Ask what the issue is. Because a conclusion is always a response to an issue, it will help you find the conclusion if you know the issue. We dis- cussed earlier how to identify the issue. First, look at the title. Next, look at the opening paragraphs. If this technique does not help, skimming several pages may be necessary
What Are the Issue and the Conclusion? 19 The last paragraph says a lot. It would be a good idea for you to read it again. Understanding the nature of a conclusion is an essential step toward critical reading and listening. Let's look closely at a conclusion and at the inference process. Here is a brief paragraph; see whether you can identify the conclusion, then the statements that support it. Factory farming should not be legal. There are other more natural ways to produce needed food supply. "Factory farming should not be legal." This is the author's answer to the question: should factory farming be legalized? It is her conclusion. The author supports this belief with another: "There are other more natural ways to produce needed food supply." Do you see why the supporting belief is not a conclusion? It is not the conclusion because it is used to prove something else. Remember. To believe one statement (the conclusion) because you think it is well supported by other beliefs is to make an inference. When people engage in this process, they are reasoning; the conclusion is the outcome of this reasoning. Sometimes, communicators will not make their conclusions explicit; in such cases you will have to infer the conclusion from what you believe the author is trying to prove by the set of ideas she has presented. USING THIS CRITICAL QUESTION Once you have found the conclusion, use it as the focus of your evaluation. It is the destination that the writer or speaker wants you to choose. Your ongoing concern is: Should I accept that conclusion on the basis of what is supporting the claim? Clues to Discovery: How to Find the Conclusion There are a number of clues to help you identify the conclusion. CLUE NO. 1: Ask what the issue is. Because a conclusion is always a response to an issue, it will help you find the conclusion if you know the issue. We discussed earlier how to identify the issue. First, look at the title. Next, look at the opening paragraphs. If this technique does not help, skimming several pages may be necessary
Chapter 2 Clue No. 2: Look for indicator words. The conclusion will frequently be pre- ceded by indicator words that announce a conclusion is coming. When you see these indicator words, take note of them. They tell you that a conclusion may follow. A list of such indicator words follows ly s that hence points to the conclusion that the point I'm trying to make is it follows that it is highly probable that proves that indicates that the truth of the matter is Read the following passage; then identify and highlight the indicator words By doing so, you will have identified the statements containing the conclusion Because of the wording of the Constitution, it follows that prayer should not be allowed in public schools. When the schools favor any particular religion, they are hampering the freedom of those who embrace a different religion. The idea of freedom of religion is what the country was founded on You should have highlighted the following phrase: it follows. The conclu- n follows these words Unfortunately, many written and spoken communications do not intro- duce the conclusion with indicator words. However, when you write, you should draw attention to your thesis with indicator words. Those words act as a neon sign, drawing attention to the point you want the reader to accept Clue No. 3: Look in likely locations. Conclusions tend to occupy certain loca- tions. The first two places to look are at the beginning and at the end. Many writers begin with a statement of purpose, containing what they are trying to prove. Others summarize their conclusions at the end. If you are reading a long, complex passage and are having difficulty seeing where it is going, skip ahead to the end Clue No. 4: Remember what a conclusion is not. Conclusions will not be any of the following
20 Chapter 2 Clue No. 2: Look for indicator words. The conclusion will frequently be preceded by indicator words that announce a conclusion is coming. When you see these indicator words, take note of them. They tell you that a conclusion may follow. A list of such indicator words follows: consequently suggests that hence therefore points to the conclusion that thus the point I'm trying to make is it follows that it is highly probable that shows that proves that indicates that the truth of the matter is Read the following passage; then identify and highlight the indicator words. By doing so, you will have identified the statements containing the conclusion. Because of the wording of the Constitution, it follows that prayer should not be allowed in public schools. When the schools favor any particular religion, they are hampering the freedom of those who embrace a different religion. The idea of freedom of religion is what the country was founded on. You should have highlighted the following phrase: it follows. The conclusion follows these words. Unfortunately, many written and spoken communications do not introduce the conclusion with indicator words. However, when you write, you should draw attention to your thesis with indicator words. Those words act as a neon sign, drawing attention to the point you want the reader to accept. Clue No. 3: Look in likely locations. Conclusions tend to occupy certain locations. The first two places to look are at the beginning and at the end. Many writers begin with a statement of purpose, containing what they are trying to prove. Others summarize their conclusions at the end. If you are reading a long, complex passage and are having difficulty seeing where it is going, skip ahead to the end. Clue No. 4: Remember what a conclusion is not. Conclusions will not be any of the following:
What Are the Issue and the conclusion? examples definitions d information evidence Clue No 5: Check the context of the communication and the author's back- ground. Often writers, speakers, or Internet sites take predictable positions on issues. Knowing probable biases of the source and the background of authors can clues when the conclusion is not explicit. Be espe cially alert to information about organizations with which writers or speakers may be associated Clue No. 6: Ask the question, and therefore cause conclusions are often implied, ask for the identity of the"and therefore"element. Ask, " Does the author want us to draw an implied conclusion from the information com- municated? Conclusions like "candidate X will be soft on crime are often left for the reader or viewer to infer from the limited information presented in a political ad Critical Thinking and Your Own Writing and Speaking Because readers of your writing will be looking for your thesis or conclusion help them by giving it the clarity it deserves. It is the central message you want to deliver. Emphasize it; leave no doubt about what it actually is. Making you conclusion easily identifiable not only makes a reader's task easier, it also may improve the logic of your writing. An effective way to emphasize the conclusion is to insert it at the beginning or end of your essay and precede it with an indicator word In addition, take a close look at your conclusion to make certain that it is a direct response to the issue you intended to address. For example, suppose the issue you are attempting to address is: Will owning a pet increase how long we live? If your conclusion is: " yes, it will increase our life span by an average of 15 years, "there is a match between issue and conclusion. But were your con- clusion, instead, that pets bring joy to the lives of everyone who owns them your reasoning is confused. The latter conclusion is responding to a different issue, namely, do pets bring joy to our liv
What Are the Issue and the Conclusion? 21 • examples • statistics • definitions • background information • evidence Clue No. 5: Check the context of the communication and the author's background. Often writers, speakers, or Internet sites take predictable positions on issues. Knowing probable biases of the source and the background of authors can be especially valuable clues when the conclusion is not explicit. Be especially alert to information about organizations with which writers or speakers may be associated. Clue No. 6: Ask the question, "and therefore?" Because conclusions are often implied, ask for the identity of the "and therefore" element. Ask, "Does the author want us to draw an implied conclusion from the information communicated?" Conclusions like "candidate X will be soft on crime" are often left for the reader or viewer to infer from the limited information presented in a political ad. Critical Thinking and Your Own Writing and Speaking Because readers of your writing will be looking for your thesis or conclusion, help them by giving it the clarity it deserves. It is the central message you want to deliver. Emphasize it; leave no doubt about what it actually is. Making your conclusion easily identifiable not only makes a reader's task easier, it also may improve the logic of your writing. An effective way to emphasize the conclusion is to insert it at the beginning or end of your essay and precede it with an indicator word. In addition, take a close look at your conclusion to make certain that it is a direct response to the issue you intended to address. For example, suppose the issue you are attempting to address is: Will owning a pet increase how long we live? If your conclusion is: "yes, it will increase our life span by an average of 15 years," there is a match between issue and conclusion. But were your conclusion, instead, that pets bring joy to the lives of everyone who owns them, your reasoning is confused. The latter conclusion is responding to a different issue, namely, do pets bring joy to our lives?