《生物学》课程参考书籍文献（英文版，Chapter 01 - Chapter 10）Part I The Origin of Living、Part II Biology of the Cell、Part III Energetics

part The Origin of living Things Unraveling the Mystery of How Geckos Defy gravity Defying gravity. This gecko lizard is able to climb walls and walk upside down across ceilings. Learning how geckos do this is a fascinating bit of experimental science. Science is most fun when it tickles your imagination. This is particularly true when you see something your common sense tells you just can't be true. Imagine, for example, you polar molecules. This suggests that geckos are tapping are lying on a bed in a tropical hotel room. a little lizard, a directly into the molecular structure of the surfaces they blue gecko about the size of a toothbrush, walks up the wall walk on beside you and upside down across the ceiling, stopping for Tracking down this clue. Kellar Autumn of lewis a few moments over your head to look down at you, and Clark College in Portland, Oregon, and Robert Full of the then trots over to the far wall and down University of California, Berkeley, took a closer look at There is nothing at all unusual in what you have just gecko feet. Geckos have rows of tiny hairs called setae on agined. Geckos are famous for strolling up walls in this the bottoms of their feet, like the bristles of some trendy fashion. How do geckos perform this gripping feat? Investi- toothbrush. When you look at these hairs under the micro- gators have puzzled over the adhesive properties of geckos scope, the end of each seta is divided into 400 to 1000 fine for decades. What force prevents gravity from dropping the projections called spatulae. There are about half a million of yo these setae on each foot, each only one-tenth the diameter The most reasonable hypothesis seemed suction- salamanders' feet form suction cups that let them climb Autumn and Full put together an interdisciplinary team alls, so maybe geckos' do too. The way to test this is to see of scientists and set out to measure the force produced by a if the feet adhere in a vacuum, with no air to create suction. single seta. To do this, they had to overcome two significant Salamander feet don't, but gecko feet do It's not suction experimental challenges How about friction? Cockroaches climb using tiny hooks that grapple onto irregularities in the surface, much as rock Isolating a single seta. No one had ever isolated a single climbers use crampons. Geckos, however, happily run up seta before. They succeeded in doing this by surgically Q walls of smooth polished glass that no cockroach can climb plucking a hair from a gecko foot under a microscope and It's not friction bonding the hair onto a microprobe. The microprobe Electrostatic attraction? Clothes in a dryer stick together was fitted into a specially designed micromanipulator that because of electrical charges created by their rubbing to- can move the mounted hair in various ways. gether. You can stop this by adding a"static remover"like a Measuring a very small force. Previous research had Cling-free sheet that is heavily ionized. But a gecko's feet shown that if you pull on a whole gecko, the adhesive still adhere in ionized air. It,s not electrostatic attraction force sticking each of the gecko,s feet to the wall is about Could it be glue? Many insects use adhesive secretions 10 Newtons(N), which is like supporting 1 kg. Because from glands in their feet to aid climbing. But there are no each foot has half a million setae, this predicts that a sin glands cells in the feet of a gecko, no secreted chemicals, no gle seta would produce about 20 micro Newtons of force footprints left behind. It's not glue Thats a very tiny amount to measure. To attempt the There is one tantalizing clue. however the kind that ex- measurement, Autumn and Full recruited a mechanica perimenters love Gecko feet seem to get stickier on some engineer from Stanford, Thomas Kenny. Kenny is an ex- surfaces than others. They are less sticky on low-energy pert at building instruments that can measure forces at surfaces like Teflon, and more sticky on surfaces made of the atomic level

1 Unraveling the Mystery of How Geckos Defy Gravity Science is most fun when it tickles your imagination. This is particularly true when you see something your common sense tells you just can’t be true. Imagine, for example, you are lying on a bed in a tropical hotel room. A little lizard, a blue gecko about the size of a toothbrush, walks up the wall beside you and upside down across the ceiling, stopping for a few moments over your head to look down at you, and then trots over to the far wall and down. There is nothing at all unusual in what you have just imagined. Geckos are famous for strolling up walls in this fashion. How do geckos perform this gripping feat? Investi￾gators have puzzled over the adhesive properties of geckos for decades. What force prevents gravity from dropping the gecko on your nose? The most reasonable hypothesis seemed suction— salamanders’ feet form suction cups that let them climb walls, so maybe geckos’ do too. The way to test this is to see if the feet adhere in a vacuum, with no air to create suction. Salamander feet don’t, but gecko feet do. It’s not suction. How about friction? Cockroaches climb using tiny hooks that grapple onto irregularities in the surface, much as rock￾climbers use crampons. Geckos, however, happily run up walls of smooth polished glass that no cockroach can climb. It’s not friction. Electrostatic attraction? Clothes in a dryer stick together because of electrical charges created by their rubbing to￾gether. You can stop this by adding a “static remover” like a Cling-free sheet that is heavily ionized. But a gecko’s feet still adhere in ionized air. It’s not electrostatic attraction. Could it be glue? Many insects use adhesive secretions from glands in their feet to aid climbing. But there are no glands cells in the feet of a gecko, no secreted chemicals, no footprints left behind. It’s not glue. There is one tantalizing clue, however, the kind that ex￾perimenters love. Gecko feet seem to get stickier on some surfaces than others. They are less sticky on low-energy surfaces like Teflon, and more sticky on surfaces made of polar molecules. This suggests that geckos are tapping directly into the molecular structure of the surfaces they walk on! Tracking down this clue, Kellar Autumn of Lewis & Clark College in Portland, Oregon, and Robert Full of the University of California, Berkeley, took a closer look at gecko feet. Geckos have rows of tiny hairs called setae on the bottoms of their feet, like the bristles of some trendy toothbrush. When you look at these hairs under the micro￾scope, the end of each seta is divided into 400 to 1000 fine projections called spatulae. There are about half a million of these setae on each foot, each only one-tenth the diameter of a human hair. Autumn and Full put together an interdisciplinary team of scientists and set out to measure the force produced by a single seta. To do this, they had to overcome two significant experimental challenges: Isolating a single seta. No one had ever isolated a single seta before. They succeeded in doing this by surgically plucking a hair from a gecko foot under a microscope and bonding the hair onto a microprobe. The microprobe was fitted into a specially designed micromanipulator that can move the mounted hair in various ways. Measuring a very small force. Previous research had shown that if you pull on a whole gecko, the adhesive force sticking each of the gecko’s feet to the wall is about 10 Newtons (N), which is like supporting 1 kg. Because each foot has half a million setae, this predicts that a sin￾gle seta would produce about 20 microNewtons of force. That’s a very tiny amount to measure. To attempt the measurement, Autumn and Full recruited a mechanical engineer from Stanford, Thomas Kenny. Kenny is an ex￾pert at building instruments that can measure forces at the atomic level. Part I The Origin of Living Things Defying gravity. This gecko lizard is able to climb walls and walk upside down across ceilings. Learning how geckos do this is a fascinating bit of experimental science. Real People Doing Real Science

Begin p Seta pulled on sensor Time(s) The sliding step experiment. The adhesive force of a single seta was measured. An initial push perpendicularly put the seta in contact with the sensor. Then, with parallel pulling, Closeup look at a gecko's foot. The setae on a gecko's foot are continued to increase over time to a value of 60 microNewtons arranged in rows, and point backwards, away from the toenail. (after this, the seta began to slide and pulled off the sensor). In a Each seta branches into several hundred spatulae (inset photo) large number of similar experiments, adhesion forces typically ach 200 microNewtons Two hundred micro Newtons is a tiny force, but stupen dous for Igh to ho The Experiment up an ant. a million hairs could support a small child. a little ecko, ceiling walking with 2 million of them(see photos Once this team had isolated a seta and placed it in Kenny's above), could theoretically carry a 90-pound backpack--talk device, "We had a real nasty surprise, "says Autumn. Fc about being over-engineered wo months, pushing individual seta against a surface, they If a gecko's feet stick that good, how do geckos ever couldnt get the isolated hair to stick at all become unstuck? The research team experimented with This forced the research team to stand back and think unattaching individual seta; they used yet another micro- bit. Finally it hit them. Geckos don,t walk by pushing their instrument, this one designed by engineer Ronald Fearin feet down, like we do. Instead, when a gecko takes a step, it also from U C. Berkeley, to twist the hair in various way pushes the palm of the foot into the surface, then uncurls They found that tipped past a critical angle, 30 degrees, its toes, sliding them backwards onto the surface. this he attractive forces between hair and surface atoms shoves the forest of tips sideways against the surface. weaken to nothing. The trick is to tip a foot hair until its Going back to their instruments, they repeated their ex- projections let go. Geckos release their feet by curling up riment,but this time they oriented the seta to approach each toe and peeling it off, just the way we remove ta the surface from the side rather than head-on. This had the What is the source of the powerful adhesion of gecko feet? effect of bringing the many spatulae on the tip of the seta The experiments do not reveal exactly what the attractive into direct contact with the surface force is. but it seems almost certain to involve interactions at To measure these forces on the seta from the side, as well the atomic level. For a geckos foot to stick, the hundreds of as the perpendicular forces they had already been measur- spatulae at the tip of each seta must butt up squarely against ing, the researchers constructed a micro-electromechanical the surface, so the individual atoms of each spatula can come cantilever. The apparatus consisted of two piezoresistive into play. When two atoms approach each other very yers deposited on a silicon cantilever to detect force in closely--closer than the diameter of an atom-a subtle nu- both parallel and perpendicular angles clear attraction called Van der Waals forces comes into play These forces are individually very weak, but when lots of The results them add their little bits, the sum can add up to quite a lot. Might robots be devised with feet tipped with artificial With the seta oriented properly, the experiment yielded re- setae, able to walk up walls? Autumn and Full are working sults. Fantastic results. The attachment force measured by with a robotics company to find out. Sometimes science is the machine went up 600-fold from what the team had not only fun, but can lead to surprising advances en measuring before. A single seta produced not the microNewtons of force predicted by the whole-foot m To explore this experiment further surements, but up to an astonishing 200 micro Newtons go to the virtual lab at (see graph above)! Measuring many individual seta, adhe www.mhhe.com/raven6/vlabl.mhtml sive forces averaged 194+25 microNewtons

The Experiment Once this team had isolated a seta and placed it in Kenny’s device, “We had a real nasty surprise,” says Autumn. For two months, pushing individual seta against a surface, they couldn’t get the isolated hair to stick at all! This forced the research team to stand back and think a bit. Finally it hit them. Geckos don’t walk by pushing their feet down, like we do. Instead, when a gecko takes a step, it pushes the palm of the foot into the surface, then uncurls its toes, sliding them backwards onto the surface. This shoves the forest of tips sideways against the surface. Going back to their instruments, they repeated their ex￾periment, but this time they oriented the seta to approach the surface from the side rather than head-on. This had the effect of bringing the many spatulae on the tip of the seta into direct contact with the surface. To measure these forces on the seta from the side, as well as the perpendicular forces they had already been measur￾ing, the researchers constructed a micro-electromechanical cantilever. The apparatus consisted of two piezoresistive layers deposited on a silicon cantilever to detect force in both parallel and perpendicular angles. The Results With the seta oriented properly, the experiment yielded re￾sults. Fantastic results. The attachment force measured by the machine went up 600-fold from what the team had been measuring before. A single seta produced not the 20 microNewtons of force predicted by the whole-foot mea￾surements, but up to an astonishing 200 microNewtons (see graph above)! Measuring many individual seta, adhe￾sive forces averaged 194+25 microNewtons. Two hundred microNewtons is a tiny force, but stupen￾dous for a single hair only 100 microns long. Enough to hold up an ant. A million hairs could support a small child. A little gecko, ceiling walking with 2 million of them (see photos above), could theoretically carry a 90-pound backpack—talk about being over-engineered. If a gecko’s feet stick that good, how do geckos ever become unstuck? The research team experimented with unattaching individual seta; they used yet another micro￾instrument, this one designed by engineer Ronald Fearing also from U.C. Berkeley, to twist the hair in various ways. They found that tipped past a critical angle, 30 degrees, the attractive forces between hair and surface atoms weaken to nothing. The trick is to tip a foot hair until its projections let go. Geckos release their feet by curling up each toe and peeling it off, just the way we remove tape. What is the source of the powerful adhesion of gecko feet? The experiments do not reveal exactly what the attractive force is, but it seems almost certain to involve interactions at the atomic level. For a gecko’s foot to stick, the hundreds of spatulae at the tip of each seta must butt up squarely against the surface, so the individual atoms of each spatula can come into play. When two atoms approach each other very closely—closer than the diameter of an atom—a subtle nu￾clear attraction called Van der Waals forces comes into play. These forces are individually very weak, but when lots of them add their little bits, the sum can add up to quite a lot. Might robots be devised with feet tipped with artificial setae, able to walk up walls? Autumn and Full are working with a robotics company to find out. Sometimes science is not only fun, but can lead to surprising advances. To explore this experiment further, go to the Virtual Lab at www.mhhe.com/raven6/vlab1.mhtml 1 2 Time (s) 345 20 0 -20 40 60 Force (µN) 80 0 Begin parallel pulling Seta pulled off sensor The sliding step experiment. The adhesive force of a single seta was measured. An initial push perpendicularly put the seta in contact with the sensor. Then, with parallel pulling, the force continued to increase over time to a value of 60 microNewtons (after this, the seta began to slide and pulled off the sensor). In a large number of similar experiments, adhesion forces typically approach 200 microNewtons. Closeup look at a gecko’s foot. The setae on a gecko’s foot are arranged in rows, and point backwards, away from the toenail. Each seta branches into several hundred spatulae (inset photo)

The science of biology Concept Outline 1.1 Biology is the science of life Properties of life. Biology is the science that studies living organisms and how they interact with one another and heir environment 1. 2 Scientists form generalizations from observations. The Nature of Science. Science employs both deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning How Science Is Done. Scientists construct hypotheses from systematically collected objective data. They then perform experiments designed to disprove the hypotheses. 1.3 Darwins theory of evolution illustrates how science Darwins Theory of Evolution. On a round-the-world oyage Darwin made observations that eventually led him to formulate the hypothesis of evolution by natural selection Darwins Evidence. The fossil and geographic patterns of life he observed convinced Darwin that a process of evolution FIGURE 1.1 had occurred A replica of the Beagle, off the southern coast of South Inventing the Theory of Natural Selection. The Malthus idea that populations cannot grow unchecked led set forth on H.M.S. Beagle in 1831, at the age of 22.n, Darwin, and another naturalist named Wallace, to propose he hypothesis of natural selection Evolution After Darwin: More Evidence. In the century since Darwin, a mass of experimental evidence has supported ou are about to embark on a journey-a journey of his theory of evolution, now accepted by practically all pr: discovery about the nature of life. Nearly 180 years go, a young English naturalist named Charles Darwin sail on a similar journey on board H M.S. Beagle(figure 1. 4 This book is organized to help you learn biology 1. 1 shows a replica of the Beagle). What Darwin learned on Core Principles of Biology. The first half of this text is his five-year voyage led directly to his development of the devoted to general principles that apply to all organisms, the theory of evolution by natural selection, a theory that has second half to an examination of particula ar or become the core of the science of biology. Darwins voyage seems a fitting place to begin our exploration of biology the scientific study of living organisms and how they hav volved. Before we begin, however, let,s take a moment to think about what biology is and why it's important

3 1 The Science of Biology Concept Outline 1.1 Biology is the science of life. Properties of Life. Biology is the science that studies living organisms and how they interact with one another and their environment. 1.2 Scientists form generalizations from observations. The Nature of Science. Science employs both deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning. How Science Is Done. Scientists construct hypotheses from systematically collected objective data. They then perform experiments designed to disprove the hypotheses. 1.3 Darwin’s theory of evolution illustrates how science works. Darwin’s Theory of Evolution. On a round-the-world voyage Darwin made observations that eventually led him to formulate the hypothesis of evolution by natural selection. Darwin’s Evidence. The fossil and geographic patterns of life he observed convinced Darwin that a process of evolution had occurred. Inventing the Theory of Natural Selection. The Malthus idea that populations cannot grow unchecked led Darwin, and another naturalist named Wallace, to propose the hypothesis of natural selection. Evolution After Darwin: More Evidence. In the century since Darwin, a mass of experimental evidence has supported his theory of evolution, now accepted by practically all prac￾ticing biologists. 1.4 This book is organized to help you learn biology. Core Principles of Biology. The first half of this text is devoted to general principles that apply to all organisms, the second half to an examination of particular organisms. You are about to embark on a journey—a journey of discovery about the nature of life. Nearly 180 years ago, a young English naturalist named Charles Darwin set sail on a similar journey on board H.M.S. Beagle (figure 1.1 shows a replica of the Beagle). What Darwin learned on his five-year voyage led directly to his development of the theory of evolution by natural selection, a theory that has become the core of the science of biology. Darwin’s voyage seems a fitting place to begin our exploration of biology, the scientific study of living organisms and how they have evolved. Before we begin, however, let’s take a moment to think about what biology is and why it’s important. FIGURE 1.1 A replica of the Beagle, off the southern coast of South America. The famous English naturalist, Charles Darwin, set forth on H.M.S. Beagle in 1831, at the age of 22

1.1 Biology is the science of life. Properties of life VITHIN CELLS In its broadest sense, biology is the study of living things-the science of life. Living things come in an astounding variety of shapes and forms, and biologists study life in many differ ent ways. They live with gorillas, collect fossils, and listen to whales. They isolate viruses, grow mushrooms, and ex- amine the structure of fruit flies. They read the messages encoded in the long molecules of heredity and count how many times a hummingbird's wings beat each second What makes something"alive"? Anyone could deduce that a galloping horse is alive and a car is not, but wby? We cannot say, "If it moves, it's alive, "because a car can move, and gelatin can wiggle in a bowl. They certainly are ne alive. What characteristics do define life? All living organ isms share five basic characteristics: 1. Order. All organisms consist of one or more cells with highly ordered structures: atoms make up mole Cell cules, which construct cellular organelles, which are contained within cells. This hierarchical organization continues at higher levels in multicellular organisms and among organisms(figure 1. 2) 2. Sensitivity. All organisms respond to stimuli. Plants grow toward a source of light, and your pupils dilate when you walk into a dark room 3. Growth, development, and reproduction. All or ganisms are capable of growing and reproducing, and they all possess hereditary molecules that are passed to their offspring, ensuring that the offspring are of the same species. Although crystals also"grow, "their growth does not involve hereditary molecules 4. Regulation. All organisms have regulatory mecha nisms that coordinate the organisms internal func- tions. These functions include supplying cells with nu- trients, transporting substances through the organism, ers 5. Homeostasis. All organisms maintain relatively constant internal conditions different from their envi- ronment, a process called homeostasis. All living things share certain key characteristics: order, Macromolecule sensitivity, growth, development and reproduction, egulation, and homeostasis. FIGURE 1.2 Hierarchical organization of living things. Life is highly orga nized-from small and simple to large and complex, within cells, within multicellular organisms, and among organisms Part I The Origin of Living things

4 Part I The Origin of Living Things Properties of Life In its broadest sense, biology is the study of living things—the science of life. Living things come in an astounding variety of shapes and forms, and biologists study life in many differ￾ent ways. They live with gorillas, collect fossils, and listen to whales. They isolate viruses, grow mushrooms, and ex￾amine the structure of fruit flies. They read the messages encoded in the long molecules of heredity and count how many times a hummingbird’s wings beat each second. What makes something “alive”? Anyone could deduce that a galloping horse is alive and a car is not, but why? We cannot say, “If it moves, it’s alive,” because a car can move, and gelatin can wiggle in a bowl. They certainly are not alive. What characteristics do define life? All living organ￾isms share five basic characteristics: 1. Order. All organisms consist of one or more cells with highly ordered structures: atoms make up mole￾cules, which construct cellular organelles, which are contained within cells. This hierarchical organization continues at higher levels in multicellular organisms and among organisms (figure 1.2). 2. Sensitivity. All organisms respond to stimuli. Plants grow toward a source of light, and your pupils dilate when you walk into a dark room. 3. Growth, development, and reproduction. All or￾ganisms are capable of growing and reproducing, and they all possess hereditary molecules that are passed to their offspring, ensuring that the offspring are of the same species. Although crystals also “grow,” their growth does not involve hereditary molecules. 4. Regulation. All organisms have regulatory mecha￾nisms that coordinate the organism’s internal func￾tions. These functions include supplying cells with nu￾trients, transporting substances through the organism, and many others. 5. Homeostasis. All organisms maintain relatively constant internal conditions, different from their envi￾ronment, a process called homeostasis. All living things share certain key characteristics: order, sensitivity, growth, development and reproduction, regulation, and homeostasis. 1.1 Biology is the science of life. FIGURE 1.2 Hierarchical organization of living things. Life is highly orga￾nized—from small and simple to large and complex, within cells, within multicellular organisms, and among organisms. Organelle Macromolecule Molecule Cell WITHIN CELLS

WITHIN MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS AMONG ORGANISMS Organ Chapter 1 The Science of Biology 5

Chapter 1 The Science of Biology 5 AMONG ORGANISMS Ecosystem Community Species Population WITHIN MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS Tissue Organ Organ system Organism